A Thermodynamic Analysis of the π* and ET(30) Polarity Scales

The physical significance of the Kamlet–Taft π* parameter of ionic liquids

The Kamlet–Taft dipolarity/polarizability parameters π* for various ionic liquids were determined using 4-tert-butyl-2-((dicyanomethylene)-5-[4-N,N-diethylamino)-benzylidene]-Δ3-thiazoline and 5-(N,N-dimethylamino)-5′-nitro-2,2′-bithiophene as solvatochromic probes.

Origin of Asymmetric Solvation Effects for Ions in Water and Organic Solvents Investigated Using Molecular Dynamics Simulations: The Swain Acity-Basity Scale Revisited

The asymmetric solvation of ions can be defined as the tendency of a solvent to preferentially solvate anions over cations or cations over anions, at identical ionic charge magnitudes and effective sizes. Taking water as a reference, these effects are quantified experimentally for many solvents by the relative acity (A) and basity (B) parameters of the Swain scale. The goal of the present study is to investigate the asymmetric solvation of ions using molecular dynamics simulations, and to connect the results to this empirical scale. To this purpose, the charging free energies of alkali and halide ions, and of their hypothetical oppositely charged counterparts, are calculated in a variety of solvents. In a first set of calculations, artificial solvent models are considered that present either a charge or a shape asymmetry at the molecular level. The solvation asymmetry, probed by the difference in charging free energy between the two oppositely charged ions, is found to encompass a term quadratic in the ion charge, related to the different solvation structures around the anion and cation, and a term linear in the ion charge, related to the solvation structure around the uncharged ion-sized cavity. For these simple solvent models, the two terms are systematically counteracting each other, and it is argued that only the quadratic term should be retained when comparing the results of simulations involving physical solvents to experimental data. In a second set of calculations, 16 physical solvents are considered. The theoretical estimates for the acity A are found to correlate very well with the Swain parameters, whereas the correlation for B is very poor. Based on this observation, the Swain scale is reformulated into a new scale involving an asymmetry parameter Σ, positive for acitic solvents and negative for basitic ones, and a polarity parameter Π. This revised scale has the same predictive power as the original scale, but it characterizes asymmetry in an absolute sense, the atomistic simulations playing the role of an extra-thermodynamic assumption, and is optimally compatible with the simulation results. Considering the 55 solvents in the Swain set, it is observed that a moderate basity (Σ between -0.9 and -0.3, related to electronic polarization) represents the baseline for most solvents, while a highly variable acity (Σ between 0.0 and 3.0, related to hydrogen-bond donor capacity modulated by inductive effects) represents a landmark of protic solvents.

Solubility Limits in Lennard-Jones Mixtures: Effects of Disparate Molecule Geometries

In order to better understand general effects of the size and energy disparities between macromolecules and solvent molecules in solution, especially for macromolecular constructs self-assembled from smaller molecules, we use the first- and second-order exact bridge diagram extensions of the HNC integral equation theory to investigate single-component, binary, ternary, and quaternary mixtures of Lennard-Jones fluids. For pure fluids, we find that the HNCH3 bridge function integral equation (i.e., exact to third order in density) is necessary to quantitatively predict the pure gas and pure liquid sides of the coexistence region of the phase diagram of the Lennard-Jones fluid. For the mixtures, we find that the HNCH2 bridge function integral equation is sufficient to qualitatively predict solubility in the binary, ternary, and quaternary mixtures, up to the nominal solubility limit. The results, as limiting cases, should be useful to several problems, including accurate phase diagram predictions for complex mixtures, design of self-assembling nanostructures via solvent controls, and the solvent contributions to the conformational behavior of macromolecules in complex fluids.

Detection of ethanol in alcoholic beverages or vapor phase using fluorescent molecules embedded in a nanofibrous polymer

An alcohol sensor was developed using the solid-state fluorescence emission of terphenyl-ol (TPhOH) derivatives. Admixtures of TPhOH and sodium carbonate exhibited bright sky-blue fluorescence in the solid state upon addition of small quantities of ethanol. A series of terphenol derivatives was synthesized, and the effects of solvent polarities and the structures of these π-conjugated systems on their fluorescence were systematically investigated by using fluorescence spectroscopy. In particular, π-extended TPhOHs and TPhOHs containing electron-withdrawing groups exhibited significant solvatochromism, and fluorescence colors varied from blue to red. Detection of ethanol contents in alcohol beverages (detection limit ∼ 5 v/v %) was demonstrated using different TPhOHs revealing the effect of molecular structure on sensing properties. Ethanol contents in alcoholic beverages could be estimated from the intensity of the fluorescence elicited from the TPhOHs. Moreover, when terphenol and Na2CO3 were combined with a water-absorbent polymer, ethanol could be detected at lower concentrations. Detection of ethanol vapor (8 v/v % in air) was also accomplished using a nanofibrous polymer scaffold as the immobilized sensing film.

Dynamics of ground state absorption spectra in donor-acceptor pairs with ultrafast charge recombination

A theoretical approach to simulation of the transient spectra in molecular systems with ultrafast photoinduced nonradiative electronic transitions is developed. The evolution of the excited and ground state populations as well as the nonradiative transitions between them are calculated in the framework of the stochastic multichannel point-transition model involving the reorganization of the medium and the intramolecular high frequency vibrational modes. Simulations of transient spectra of donor-acceptor pairs excited in the charge-transfer band that are accompanied by ultrafast charge recombination into the ground state demonstrate a possibility of positive band appearance in the transient absorption spectrum caused by those systems in the ground state, which returned there from the excited state. The region of the parameters of the donor-acceptor systems where a positive ground state absorption signal can be observed is discussed. A qualitative comparison of the simulated transient spectra with the experimental data on betaine-30 is presented.

Optical sensor arrays for chemical sensing: the optoelectronic nose

A comprehensive review is presented on the development and state of the art of colorimetric and fluorometric sensor arrays. Optical arrays based on chemoresponsive colorants (dyes and nanoporous pigments) probe the chemical reactivity of analytes, rather than their physical properties. This provides a high dimensionality to chemical sensing that permits high sensitivity (often down to ppb levels), impressive discrimination among very similar analytes and exquisite fingerprinting of extremely similar mixtures over a wide range of analyte types, both in the gas and liquid phases.

Spectral shift mechanisms of chlorophylls in liquids and proteins

Origins of non-excitonic spectral shifts of chlorophylls that can reach -1,000 cm(-1) in pigment-protein complexes are actively debated in literature. We investigate possible shift mechanisms, basing on absorption and fluorescence measurements in large number of liquids. Transition wavelength in solvent-free state was estimated (±2 nm) for chlorophyll a (Chl a, 647 nm), Chl b (624 nm), bacteriochlorophyll a (BChl a, 752 nm), and pheophytines. The dispersive-repulsive shift is a predominating mechanism. It depends on polarizability difference between the ground and the excited state Δα and the Lorenz-Lorentz function of refractive index of solvent (n). The approximate (± 2Å(3)) increase of polarizability Δα is close to 15Å(3) for S(1) bands of Chl a, BChl a, and BPheo a, slightly larger for Chl b (18Å(3)), and less for Pheo a (11Å(3)). The effect of solvent polarity, expressed in terms of static dielectric permittivity (ε) is relatively minor, but characteristic for different pigments and transitions. Remarkably, maximum influence of ε on S(1) band of BChl a is less (-20 ± 10 cm(-1)) than that for Chl a (-50 ± 10 cm(-1)), and not correlated with dipole moment changes on excitation Δμ (∼2D and 0.1 ± 0.1D, respectively). Hydrogen bonding in protic solvents produces red shifts in Chl a (-60 cm(-1)) and BChl a (-100 cm(-1)), but not in Chl b. Second axial ligand of BChl a has no influence on the S(1) band, whereas the S(2) transition suffers a -400 to -600 cm(-1) down shift. Aromatic character of solvent is responsible for a ∼-100 cm(-1) red shift of both Q transitions in BChl a. The S(1) bands in chlorophylls are relatively insensitive with respect to dielectric properties and specific solvation. Therefore, nontrivial mechanisms, yielding large site-energy shifts are expected in photosynthetic chlorophyll-proteins.

Non-Gaussian statistics and nanosecond dynamics of electrostatic fluctuations affecting optical transitions in proteins

We show that electrostatic fluctuations of the protein-water interface are globally non-Gaussian. The electrostatic component of the optical transition energy (energy gap) in a hydrated green fluorescent protein is studied here by classical molecular dynamics simulations. The distribution of the energy gap displays a high excess in the breadth of electrostatic fluctuations over the prediction of the Gaussian statistics. The energy gap dynamics include a nanosecond component. When simulations are repeated with frozen protein motions, the statistics shifts to the expectations of linear response and the slow dynamics disappear. We therefore suggest that both the non-Gaussian statistics and the nanosecond dynamics originate largely from global, low-frequency motions of the protein coupled to the interfacial water. The non-Gaussian statistics can be experimentally verified from the temperature dependence of the first two spectral moments measured at constant-volume conditions. Simulations at different temperatures are consistent with other indicators of the non-Gaussian statistics. In particular, the high-temperature part of the energy gap variance (second spectral moment) scales linearly with temperature and extrapolates to zero at a temperature characteristic of the protein glass transition. This result, violating the classical limit of the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, leads to a non-Boltzmann statistics of the energy gap and corresponding non-Arrhenius kinetics of radiationless electronic transitions, empirically described by the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann law.

Synthesis of benzobisoxazole-based D-π-A-π-D organic chromophores with variable optical and electronic properties

A series of symmetrical D-π-A-π-D molecules comprised of benzo[1,2-d;4,5-d']bisoxazole (BBO) and various arylenevinylenes was synthesized via a Knoevenagel condensation of 2,6-dimethyl BBO and the corresponding aryl aldehydes. The resulting compounds had energy levels that were easily modulated and broad absorptions in the visible spectrum. They also demonstrated high fluorescence quantum yields in solution. The solvatochromism of several derivatives was examined in a number of solvents, and it was found that the emission of the triphenylamine derivative varied by almost 100 nm, depending on the polarity of the solvent. Collectively, these results indicate that the optical and electronic properties of benzobisoxazoles are readily tuned through the choice of aryl co-monomer.

Formation of dielectric layers and charge regulation in protein adsorption at biomimetic interfaces

Protein charge is an important parameter in the understanding of protein interactions and function. Proteins are subject to dynamic charge regulation, that is, the influence of the local environment (such as charged interfaces and biopolymers) on protein charge. Charge regulation is governed by differences in the dielectric and electrostatic environment between adsorbed protein and the free protein in bulk solution. In this work protein charge regulation is addressed experimentally by employing electrochemistry at interfaces between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES) as well as theoretically by developing a new protein adsorption model at ITIES. Electrochemistry at ITIES is shown to be particularly well suited to study protein charge regulation as the adsorbed protein experiences a different dielectric environment compared to the bulk phase and the external control of the water/oil potential difference allows systematic studies on how potential induced ion gradients affect protein charge. The theoretical model incorporates all the features of the experimental system and specifically takes into account protein charge regulation at ITIES as well as the impact of the formation of dielectric layers on the experimentally observed impedance. The model parameters include the protein charge-pH profile, bulk pH, and the overall potential difference. It is shown that the formation of a dielectric layer and the associated charge regulation are the main factors dictating the observed experimental behavior. Finally, the theoretical model is used to interpret literature results, and the consistency between the model and the relatively large data set suggests that the model may be used more generally for understanding and predicting protein adsorption.

Principal component analysis of solvent effects on equilibria and kinetics — A hemisphere model

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to 17 selected properties relating to the properties of solvents and their effect on solute spectra and equilibria and rates of reactions in solution. The analysis showed affinities and contrasts among the parameters. Using the first three principal components (PC's) as unit vectors in the Cartesian directions, the properties were represented as vectors in this space with their directions being represented as points on the unit hemisphere; their magnitudes are lost in the process of correlation. Properties that fell into recognizable groups included the following: (i) those purporting to measure acidity (A) (α, AN, SA, and Aj), closely associated with ETN, Z, S, and A(14N), which are usually considered to be measures of polarity; (ii) properties supposed to measure basicity (B) (β, SB, and DN); (iii) polarity group (P), including pure (di-)polarity properties (βµ1/2 and Qv) and those measuring some combinations of polarity and polarizability (π*, πazo, SPP, and –χR). The space spanned by the three PCs of the properties provided a frame in which solvent effects on equilibria and on rates of reactions could be represented. Eight equilibria, represented by log10(K) measured in different solvents, and 10 reaction rates, similarly represented by log10(k), were correlated with the three PCs of the solvent properties. This enabled plotting of their directions in the hemisphere to show which groups of properties were most strongly correlated with the rate of each reaction. A separate plot showed the magnitudes and sense of the effects. These finding are considered in the light of the mechanisms proposed for the reactions.Key words: Chemometrics, Principal Component Analysis, solvent effects on equilibria and rates.

Microsolvation effects on the π*←π electronic transitions in simple aromatic chromophores: The role of the Slater-type Gaussian orbitals in the complete active space self-consistent field approach

One of the most studied feature of aromatic molecular clusters in the gas phase is the shift of the pi*<--pi electronic transitions between the bare aromatic chromophore and its clusters. In the present ab initio complete active space self-consistent field study the coupling of the basis set superposition error and counterpoise procedure and a combination of Pople- and Slater-type Gaussian basis sets has been proven to reproduce quantitatively the gas-phase experimental shifts. The quantal results are here analyzed with respect to the electrostatic and polarization forces and electron density differences, and connected with the sign of the shifts of the electronic transitions.

Solvent reorganization of electron transitions in viscous solvents

We develop a model of electron transfer reactions at conditions of nonergodicity when the time of solvent relaxation crosses the observation time window set up by the reaction rate. Solvent reorganization energy of intramolecular electron transfer in a charge-transfer molecule dissolved in water and acetonitrile is studied by molecular dynamics simulations at varying temperatures. We observe a sharp decrease of the reorganization energy at a temperature identified as the temperature of structural arrest due to cage effect, as discussed by the mode-coupling theory. This temperature also marks the onset of the enhancement of translational diffusion relative to rotational relaxation signaling the breakdown of the Stokes-Einstein relation. The change in the reorganization energy at the transition temperature reflects the dynamical arrest of the slow, collective relaxation of the solvent related to the relaxation of the solvent dipolar polarization. An analytical theory proposed to describe this effect agrees well with both the simulations and experimental Stokes shift data. The theory is applied to the analysis of charge-transfer kinetics in a low-temperature glass former. We show that the reorganization energy is substantially lower than its equilibrium value for the low-temperature portion of the data. The theory predicts the possibility of discontinuous changes in the dependence of the electron transfer rate on the free energy gap when the reaction switches between ergodic and nonergodic regimes.

Equilibrium solvation in quadrupolar solvents

We present a microscopic theory of equilibrium solvation in solvents with zero dipole moment and nonzero quadrupole moment (quadrupolar solvents). The theory is formulated in terms of autocorrelation functions of the quadrupolar polarization (structure factors). It can be therefore applied to an arbitrary dense quadrupolar solvent for which the structure factors are defined. We formulate a simple analytical perturbation treatment for the structure factors. The solute is described by coordinates, radii, and partial charges of constituent atoms. The theory is tested on Monte Carlo simulations of solvation in model quadrupolar solvents. It is also applied to the calculation of the activation barrier of electron transfer reactions in a cleft-shaped donor-bridge-acceptor complex dissolved in benzene with the structure factors of quadrupolar polarization obtained from molecular-dynamics simulations.

Anomalous Microscopic Dielectric Response of Dipolar Solvents and Water

This paper reports measurements of static microscopic dielectric response of several dipolar solvents to charge redistribution in a fluorescent probe. Contrary to recent predictions of dielectric theories and computer simulations of bulk liquids, the observed dielectric response of most solvents conforms to the macroscopic continuum description even at atomic distances, as if these solvents had no spatial intermolecular structure. Such conformance is observed for several probes when the contribution of specific probe-solvent interactions to the response is negligible. However, water, formamide, and glycerol exhibit anomalous responses even though such a probe is used. We discuss a possible reason for the macroscopic-like behavior and a connection between the anomaly and fluctuating structures formed by anomalous solvents near the hydrophobic surface of the probe.

Pyridoneimines and pyridonemethides: substituent- and solvent-tunable intramolecular charge transfer and geometric isomerism

We have prepared and fully characterized by means of multinuclear NMR and UV-vis spectroscopy a series of pyridoneimines and pyridonemethides in order to show how it is possible to finely tune pi-electron structure properties by properly exploiting substituent and solvent effects. Substituents with different electron-withdrawing capacities were introduced in pyridoneimines 2-4, pyridonemethides 5 and 6, and pyridine sulfonamido derivatives 7-9. The anisochrony of the carbon position of the azinium ring (geometric isomerism) and the exploitation of previously reported (13)C and (15)N shift/pi-electron density relationships allowed the investigation of the extent of intramolecular charge transfer from the donor group to the acceptor pyridinium moiety. By combining different substitutions with the polarity of the surrounding media, we were able to access a whole range of push-pull electron structures in solution, from fully aromatic-zwitterionic to quinoid-neutral, through many possible intermediate situations along the path. Due to the strict correlation between the pi-electron structure of push-pull derivatives and many photonic properties such as nonlinear optical activity, we believe that the achieved results should be valuable for the development of new efficient, tailor-made, heteroaromatic systems with optimized features as advanced organic materials.