Size and shape of fast-tumbling bicelles as determined by translational diffusion

Stable Discoidal Bicelles: Formulation, Characterization, and Functions

Bicellar mixtures have been used as alignable membrane substrates under a magnetic field applicable for the structural characterization of membrane-associated proteins. Recently, it has shown that bicelles can serve as nanocarriers to effectively deliver hydrophobic therapeutic molecules to cancer cells with a three- to ten-fold enhancement compared to that of liposomes of a chemically identical composition. In this chapter, detailed preparation protocol, common structural characterization methods, the structural stability, the cellular uptake and a few unique functions of bicellar nanodiscs are discussed.

Mechanisms of membrane protein crystallization in 'bicelles'

Despite remarkable progress, mainly due to the development of LCP and ‘bicelle’ crystallization, lack of structural information remains a bottleneck in membrane protein (MP) research. A major reason is the absence of complete understanding of the mechanism of crystallization. Here we present small-angle scattering studies of the evolution of the “bicelle” crystallization matrix in the course of MP crystal growth. Initially, the matrix corresponds to liquid-like bicelle state. However, after adding the precipitant, the crystallization matrix transforms to jelly-like state. The data suggest that this final phase is composed of interconnected ribbon-like bilayers, where crystals grow. A small amount of multilamellar phase appears, and its volume increases concomitantly with the volume of growing crystals. We suggest that the lamellar phase surrounds the crystals and is critical for crystal growth, which is also common for LCP crystallization. The study discloses mechanisms of “bicelle” MP crystallization and will support rational design of crystallization.

Effects of fluidity and charge density on the morphology of a bicellar mixture - A SANS study

The spontaneously formed structures of physiologically relevant lipid model membranes made of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) and 1,2-hexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine have been evaluated in depth using small angle neutron scattering. Although a common molar ratio of long- to short- chain phospholipids (~4) as reported in many bicellar mixtures was used, discoidal bicelles were not found as the major phase throughout the range of lipid concentration and temperature studied, indicating that the required condition for the formation of bicelle is the immiscibility between the long- and short- chain lipids, which were in the gel and L_α phases, respectively, in previous reports. In this study, all lipids are in the L_α phase. The characterization outcome suggests that the spontaneous structures tie strongly with the physical parameters of the system such as melting transition temperature of the long-chain lipid, total lipid concentration and charge density of the system. Multilamellar vesicles, unilamellar vesicles, ribbons and perforated lamellae can be obtained based on the analysis of the small angle neutron scattering results, leading to the construction of structural diagrams. This report provides the important map to choose suitable lipid systems for the structural study of membrane-associated proteins, design of theranostic nanocarriers or other related research fields.

Targeted Delivery of Adamantylated Peptidoglycan Immunomodulators in Lipid Nanocarriers: NMR Shows That Cargo Fragments Are Available on the Surface

We present an in-depth investigation of the membrane interactions of peptidoglycan (PGN)-based immune adjuvants designed for lipid-based delivery systems using NMR spectroscopy. The derivatives contain a cargo peptidoglycan (PGN) dipeptide fragment and an adamantyl group, which serves as an anchor to the lipid bilayer. Furthermore, derivatives with a mannose group that can actively target cell surface receptors on immune cells are also studied. We showed that the targeting mannose group and the cargo PGN fragment are both available on the lipid bilayer surface, thereby enabling interactions with cognate receptors. We found that the nonmannosylated compounds are incorporated stronger into the lipid assemblies than the mannosylated ones, but the latter compounds penetrate deeper in the bilayer. This might be explained by stronger electrostatic interactions available for zwitterionic nonmannosylated derivatives as opposed to the compounds in which the charged N-terminus is capped by mannose groups. The higher incorporation efficiency of the nonmannosylated compounds correlated with a larger relative enhancement in immune stimulation activities upon lipid incorporation compared to that of the derivatives with the mannose group. The chirality of the adamantyl group also influenced the incorporation efficiency, which in turn correlated with membrane-associated conformations that affect possible intermolecular interactions with lipid molecules. These findings will help in improving the development of PGN-based immune adjuvants suitable for delivery in lipid nanoparticles.

Effects of Amphipathic Polypeptides on Membrane Organization Inferred from Studies Using Bicellar Lipid Mixtures

SP-B_63-78, a lung surfactant protein fragment, and magainin 2, an antimicrobial peptide, are amphipathic peptides with the same overall charge but different biological functions. Deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance has been used to compare the interactions of these peptides with dispersions of 1,2-dimyristoyl- sn-glycero-3-phophocholine (DMPC)/1,2-dihexanoyl- sn-glycero-3-phophocholine (DHPC) (4:1) and DMPC/1,2-dimyristoyl- sn-glycero-3-phopho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DMPG)/DHPC (3:1:1), two mixtures of long-chain and short-chain lipids that display bicellar behavior. This study exploited the sensitivity of a bicellar system structural organization to factors that modify partitioning of their lipid components between different environments. In small bicelle particles formed at low temperatures, short-chain components preferentially occupy curved rim environments around bilayer disks of the long-chain components. Changes in chain order and lipid mixing, on heating, can drive transitions to more extended assemblies including a magnetically orientable phase at intermediate temperature. In this work, neither peptide had a substantial effect on the behavior of the zwitterionic DMPC/DHPC mixture. For bicellar mixtures containing the anionic lipid DMPG, the peptide SP-B_63-78 lowered the temperature at which magnetically orientable particles coalesced into more extended lamellar structures. SP-B_63-78 did not promote partitioning of the zwitterionic and anionic long-chain lipid components into different environments. Magainin 2, on the other hand, was found to promote separation of the anionic lipid, DMPG, and the zwitterionic lipid, DMPC, into different environments for temperatures above 34 °C. The contrast between the effects of these two peptides on the lipid mixtures studied appears to be consistent with their functional roles in biological systems.

Bicelle composition-dependent modulation of phospholipid dynamics by apelin peptides 1

Apelin peptides are cognate ligands for the apelin receptor, a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). The apelinergic system plays critical roles in wide-ranging physiological activities including function and development of the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. Apelin is found in 13-55 residue isoforms in vivo, all of which share the C-terminal portion of the preproapelin precursor. Characterization of high-resolution structures and detergent micelle interactions of apelin-17 led to a two-step membrane-catalyzed binding and GPCR activation mechanism hypothesis recapitulated in longer isoforms. Here, we examine interactions of the apelin-13 and -17 isoforms with isotropic zwitterionic and mixed zwitterionic-anionic lipid bicelles to test for hallmarks of membrane catalysis in a more physiological membrane-mimetic environment than a micelle. Specifically, ¹H and ³¹P relaxation and diffusion solution-state NMR techniques demonstrate that both apelin isoforms interact with both types of isotropic bicelles. Bicelle hydrodynamics were observed to be differentially modulated by apelin peptides, although these effects were minimal. Phospholipid headgroup ³¹P spin relaxation behaviour was, conversely, clearly perturbed. Perturbation of this nature was also observed in magnetically aligned bicelles by ³¹P solid-state NMR spectroscopy and spin relaxation experiments. This behaviour is consistent with an apelin-bicelle binding process allowing significant peptide mobility, facilitating membrane-catalyzed GPCR encounter.

Characterization of fast-tumbling isotropic bicelles by PFG diffusion NMR

Small isotropic bicelles are versatile membrane mimetics, which, in contrast to micelles, provide a lipid bilayer and are at the same time suitable for solution-state NMR studies. The lipid composition of the bilayer is flexible allowing for incorporation of various head groups and acyl chain types. In bicelles, lipids are solubilized by detergents, which are localized in the rim of the disk-shaped lipid bilayer. Bicelles have been characterized by a broad array of biophysical methods, pulsed-field gradient NMR (PFG NMR) being one of them. PFG NMR can readily be used to measure diffusion coefficients of macromolecules. It is thus employed to characterize bicelle size and morphology. Even more importantly, PFG NMR can be used to study the degree of protein association to membranes. Here, we present the advances that have been made in producing small, fast-tumbling isotropic bicelles from a variety of lipids and detergents, together with insights on the morphology of such mixtures gained from PFG NMR. Furthermore, we review approaches to study protein-membrane interaction by PFG NMR. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Stable Discoidal Bicelles: A Platform of Lipid Nanocarriers for Cellular Delivery

Bicellar mixtures have been used as alignable membrane substrates for the structural characterization of membrane-associated proteins. Most recently, it has been shown that bicelles can serve as nanocarriers to effectively deliver hydrophobic molecules to cancer cells with a 3- to 10-fold enhancement compared to that of chemically identical liposomes. In this chapter, a detailed preparation protocol, common structural characterization methods, the structural stability and the cellular uptake of bicellar nanodisks are discussed.

Effect of an Anionic Lipid on the Barotropic Behavior of a Ternary Bicellar Mixture

Dispersions of lipid mixtures comprising long- and short-chain phospholipids (bicellar mixtures) can form small isotropically reorienting particles (bilayered micelles), magnetically orientable stuctures, or unorientable lamellar structures. Application of hydrostatic pressure can also induce interdigitation of the long-chain lipid components. In this work, variable-pressure ²H NMR was used to study the effect of head group charge on the barotropic behavior of bicellar mixtures. Observations at pressures up to 152 MPa and temperatures up to 64 °C were combined with earlier observations at lower pressure and lower temperature to obtain a pressure-temperature phase diagram for DMPC-d₅₄/DMPG/DHPC (3:1:1). In this phase diagram, a region corresponding to small, isotropically reorienting particles at lower temperature and higher pressure is separated from a region corresponding to unorientable lamellar organization, at higher temperature and lower pressure, by a band in which the magnetically orientable phase is stable below ∼100 MPa and in which an interdigitated gel phase is stable above ∼120 MPa. From ∼46 to ∼52 °C, the dispersion transforms directly from the unorientable lamellar to isotropically reorienting particle phases upon isothermal pressurization. The extent to which this behavior reflects the presence of anionic lipid in the long-chain fraction of this mixture is illustrated by comparison with spectral series obtained during isothermal pressurization of DMPC-d₅₄/DHPC (4:1) and DMPC-d₅₄/DMPG/DHPC (2.7:1.3:1) at selected temperatures. These observations show how electrostatic interactions at a bilayer surface can affect the balance between hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions that is reflected by a dispersion's barotropic phase behavior.

Bicelles and Other Membrane Mimics: Comparison of Structure, Properties, and Dynamics from MD Simulations

The increased interest in studying membrane proteins has led to the development of new membrane mimics such as bicelles and nanodiscs. However, only limited knowledge is available of how these membrane mimics are affected by embedded proteins and how well they mimic a lipid bilayer. Herein, we present molecular dynamics simulations to elucidate structural and dynamic properties of small bicelles and compare them to a large alignable bicelle, a small nanodisc, and a lipid bilayer. Properties such as lipid packing and properties related to embedding both an α-helical peptide and a transmembrane protein are investigated. The small bicelles are found to be very dynamic and mainly assume a prolate shape substantiating that small bicelles cannot be regarded as well-defined disclike structures. However, addition of a peptide results in an increased tendency to form disc-shaped bicelles. The small bicelles and the nanodiscs show increased peptide solvation and difference in peptide orientation compared to embedding in a bilayer. The large bicelle imitated a bilayer well with respect to both curvature and peptide solvation, although peripheral binding of short tailed lipids to the embedded proteins is observed, which could hinder ligand binding or multimer formation.

Kinetics of lipid mixing between bicelles and nanolipoprotein particles

Nanolipoprotein particles (NLPs), also known as nanodiscs, are lipid bilayers bounded by apolipoprotein. Lipids and membrane proteins cannot exchange between NLPs. However, the addition of bicelles opens NLPs and transfers their contents to bicelles, which freely exchange lipids and proteins. NLP-bicelle interactions may provide a new method for studying membrane protein oligomerization. The interaction mechanism was investigated by stopped flow fluorometry. NLPs with lipids having fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) donors and acceptors were mixed with a 200-fold molar excess of dihexanoyl phosphatidylcholine (DHPC)/dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) bicelles, and the rate of lipid transfer was monitored by the disappearance of FRET. Near or below the DMPC phase transition temperature, the kinetics were sigmoidal. Free DHPC and apolipoprotein were ruled out as participants in autocatalytic mechanisms. The NLP-bicelle mixing rate showed a strong temperature dependence (activation energy = 28 kcal/mol). Models are proposed for the NLP-bicelle mixing, including one involving fusion pores.

Use of isotropically tumbling bicelles to measure curvature induced by membrane components

Isotropically tumbling discoidal bicelles are a useful biophysical tool for the study of lipids and proteins by NMR, dynamic light scattering, and small-angle X-ray scattering. Isotropically tumbling bicelles present a low-curvature central region, typically enriched with DMPC in the lamellar state, and a highly curved detergent rim, typically composed of DHPC. In this report, we study the impact of the partitioning and induced curvature of a few molecules of a foreign lipid on the bicelle size, structure, and curvature. Previous approaches for studying curvature have focused on macroscopic and bulk properties of membrane curvature. In the approach presented here, we show that the conical shape of the DOPE lipid and the inverted-conical shape of the DPC lipid induce measurable curvature changes in the bicelle size. Bicelles with an average of 1.8 molecules of DOPE have marked increases in the size of bicelles, consistent with negative membrane curvature in the central region of the bicelle. With bicelle curvature models, radii of curvature on the order of -100 Å and below are measured, with a greater degree of curvature observed in the more pliable Lα state above the phase-transition temperature of DMPC. Bicelles with an average of 1.8 molecules of DPC are reduced in size, consistent with positive membrane curvature in the rim, and at higher temperatures, DPC is distributed in the central region to form mixed-micelle structures. We use translational and rotational diffusion measurements by NMR, size-exclusion chromatography, and structural models to quantitate changes in bicelle size, curvature, and lipid dynamics.

Lipid concentration and molar ratio boundaries for the use of isotropic bicelles

Bicelles are model membranes generally made of long-chain dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) and short-chain dihexanoyl-PC (DHPC). They are extensively used in the study of membrane interactions and structure determination of membrane-associated peptides, since their composition and morphology mimic the widespread PC-rich natural eukaryotic membranes. At low DMPC/DHPC (q) molar ratios, fast-tumbling bicelles are formed in which the DMPC bilayer is stabilized by DHPC molecules in the high-curvature rim region. Experimental constraints imposed by techniques such as circular dichroism, dynamic light scattering, or microscopy may require the use of bicelles at high dilutions. Studies have shown that such conditions induce the formation of small aggregates and alter the lipid-to-detergent ratio of the bicelle assemblies. The objectives of this work were to determine the exact composition of those DMPC/DHPC isotropic bicelles and study the lipid miscibility. This was done using (31)P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and exploring a wide range of lipid concentrations (2-400 mM) and q ratios (0.15-2). Our data demonstrate how dilution modifies the actual DMPC/DHPC molar ratio in the bicelles. Care must be taken for samples with a total lipid concentration ≤250 mM and especially at q ∼ 1.5-2, since moderate dilutions could lead to the formation of large and slow-tumbling lipid structures that could hinder the use of solution NMR methods, circular dichroism or dynamic light scattering studies. Our results, supported by infrared spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations, also show that phospholipids in bicelles are largely segregated only when q > 1. Boundaries are presented within which control of the bicelles' q ratio is possible. This work, thus, intends to guide the choice of q ratio and total phospholipid concentration when using isotropic bicelles.

Red wine tannins fluidify and precipitate lipid liposomes and bicelles. A role for lipids in wine tasting?

Sensory properties of red wine tannins are bound to complex interactions between saliva proteins, membranes taste receptors of the oral cavity, and lipids or proteins from the human diet. Whereas astringency has been widely studied in terms of tannin-saliva protein colloidal complexes, little is known about interactions between tannins and lipids and their implications in the taste of wine. This study deals with tannin-lipid interactions, by mimicking both oral cavity membranes by micrometric size liposomes and lipid droplets in food by nanometric isotropic bicelles. Deuterium and phosphorus solid-state NMR demonstrated the membrane hydrophobic core disordering promoted by catechin (C), epicatechin (EC), and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the latter appearing more efficient. C and EGCG destabilize isotropic bicelles and convert them into an inverted hexagonal phase. Tannins are shown to be located at the membrane interface and stabilize the lamellar phases. These newly found properties point out the importance of lipids in the complex interactions that happen in the mouth during organoleptic feeling when ingesting tannins.

Interaction of the C-terminal peptide of pulmonary surfactant protein B (SP-B) with a bicellar lipid mixture containing anionic lipid

The hydrophobic lung surfactant SP-B is essential for respiration. SP-B promotes spreading and adsorption of surfactant at the alveolar air-water interface and may facilitate connections between the surface layer and underlying lamellar reservoirs of surfactant material. SP-B_63–78 is a cationic and amphipathic helical peptide containing the C-terminal helix of SP-B. ²H NMR has been used to examine the effect of SP-B_63–78 on the phase behavior and dynamics of bicellar lipid dispersions containing the longer chain phospholipids DMPC-d₅₄ and DMPG and the shorter chain lipid DHPC mixed with a 3∶1∶1 molar ratio. Below the gel-to-liquid crystal phase transition temperature of the longer chain components, bicellar mixtures form small, rapidly reorienting disk-like particles with shorter chain lipid components predominantly found around the highly curved particle edges. With increasing temperature, the particles coalesce into larger magnetically-oriented structures and then into more extended lamellar phases. The susceptibility of bicellar particles to coalescence and large scale reorganization makes them an interesting platform in which to study peptide-induced interactions between lipid assemblies. SP-B_63–78 is found to lower the temperature at which the orientable phase transforms to the more extended lamellar phase. The peptide also changes the spectrum of motions contributing to quadrupole echo decay in the lamellar phase. The way in which the peptide alters interactions between bilayered micelle structures may provide some insight into some aspects of the role of full-length SP-B in maintaining a functional surfactant layer in lungs.

Solution NMR studies of cell-penetrating peptides in model membrane systems

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a class of short, often cationic peptides that have the capability to translocate across cellular membranes, and although the translocation most likely involves several pathways, they interact directly with membranes, as well as with model bilayers. Most CPPs attain a three-dimensional structure when interacting with bilayers, while they are more or less unstructured in aqueous solution. To understand the relationship between structure and the effect that CPPs have on membranes it is of great importance to investigate CPPs at atomic resolution in a suitable membrane model. Moreover, the location in bilayers is likely to be correlated with the translocation mechanism. Solution-state NMR offers a unique possibility to investigate structure, dynamics and location of proteins and peptides in bilayers. This review focuses on solution NMR as a tool for investigating CPP-lipid interactions. Structural propensities and cell-penetrating capabilities can be derived from a combination of CPP solution structures and studies of the effect that the peptides have on bilayers and the localization in a bilayer.

Dependence of bicellar system phase behavior and dynamics on anionic lipid concentration

Bicellar dispersions of chain perdeuterated 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC-d54) and 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DHPC) were prepared with the molar fraction of DHPC held fixed at 20% and varying amounts of DMPC replaced by the anionic lipid 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DMPG). (2)H NMR spectra were examined to assess the effect of added DMPG on mixture phase behavior and morphology. Quadrupole echo decay and quadrupole-Carr-Purcell-Mieboom-Gill echo train measurements provided information about slow motions contributing to echo decay in the high temperature phases. The spectra and quadrupole echo decay properties of DMPC-d54/DHPC (4:1) and DMPC-d54/DMPG/DHPC (3:1:1) were qualitatively similar. With increasing DMPG concentration, the transition between the magnetically orientable phase and the higher temperature phase became increasingly distinct, and the spectral shape and echo decay characteristics of the high temperature bicellar phase became increasingly similar to those of DMPC-d54 in the liquid crystalline phase. The observation that DMPG changes spectra in the orientable phase incrementally while increasing the distinction between the orientable and high temperature bicellar phases provides new insights into how DMPG influences bicellar mixture morphology.

Dynamic properties of bicellar lipid mixtures observed by rheometry and quadrupole echo decay

In bicellar dispersions of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DHPC), the transition from isotropic reorientation to partial orientational order, on warming, is known to coincide with a sharp increase in viscosity. In this work, cone-and-plate rheometry, (2)H NMR spectroscopy, and quadrupole echo decay observations have been used to obtain new insights into the dynamics of phases observed in bicellar DMPC/DHPC mixtures. Samples with 25% of the DMPC component deuterated were used to correlate rheological measurements with phase behavior observed by (2)H NMR spectroscopy. Mixtures containing only normal DMPC (DMPC/DHPC) or only chain perdeuterated DMPC (DMPC-d(54)/DHPC) were used to refine rheology and quadrupole echo decay measurements respectively. The viscosity peaked at 4-9 Pa·s, just above the isotropic-to-nematic transition, and then dropped as samples were warmed through the nematic-to-lamellar transition. Quadrupole echo decay times above the nematic-to-lamellar transition were significantly longer than typically observed in the liquid crystalline phase of saturated lipid multilamellar vesicles. This may indicate a damping of slow bilayer undulations resulting from the coupling of opposite bilayer surfaces by DHPC-lined pores.

Bicelles at low concentrations

Bilayered detergent-lipid assemblies known as bicelles have been widely used as model membranes in structural biological studies and are being explored for wider applications, including pharmaceutical use. Most studies to date have involved the use of concentrated bicelle mixtures, such that little is known about the capacity of bicellar mixtures to be diluted without unwanted transitions to nonisotropic phases. Here, different detergent/lipid mixtures have been explored, leading to the identification of two different families of bicelles for which it is possible to lower the total amphiphile (detergent + lipid) concentration to <1% (w/v) while retaining isotropic assemblies. These include a novel family of bicelles based on mixtures of 6-cyclohexyl-1-hexylphosphocholine (Cyclofos-6) and the lipid dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC). Bicelles formed by these mixtures can be diluted to <0.5% and also have attractive biochemical properties. However, a caveat of our results is that the diffusion coefficients measured for the lipid component of the different bicelles tested were seen to be dependent on sample history, even though all samples were optically transparent. This suggests that the phase behavior of bicelles at low lipid-to-detergent ratios may be more complex than previously appreciated.

Cell-free synthesis of membrane subunits of ATP synthase in phospholipid bicelles: NMR shows subunit a fold similar to the protein in the cell membrane

NMR structure determination of large membrane proteins is hampered by broad spectral lines, overlap, and ambiguity of signal assignment. Chemical shift and NOE assignment can be facilitated by amino acid selective isotope labeling in cell-free protein synthesis system. However, many biological detergents are incompatible with the cell-free synthesis, and membrane proteins often have to be synthesized in an insoluble form. We report cell-free synthesis of subunits a and c of the proton channel of Escherichia coli ATP synthase in a soluble form in a mixture of phosphatidylcholine derivatives. In comparison, subunit a was purified from the cell-free system and from the bacterial cell membranes. NMR spectra of both preparations were similar, indicating that our procedure for cell-free synthesis produces protein structurally similar to that prepared from the cell membranes.

Reconstitution of integral membrane proteins into isotropic bicelles with improved sample stability and expanded lipid composition profile

Reconstitution of integral membrane proteins into membrane mimetic environments suitable for biophysical and structural studies has long been a challenge. Isotropic bicelles promise the best of both worlds-keeping a membrane protein surrounded by a small patch of bilayer-forming lipids while remaining small enough to tumble isotropically and yield good solution NMR spectra. However, traditional methods for the reconstitution of membrane proteins into isotropic bicelles expose the proteins to potentially destabilizing environments. Reconstituting the protein into liposomes and then adding short-chain lipid to this mixture produces bicelle samples while minimizing protein exposure to unfavorable environments. The result is higher yield of protein reconstituted into bicelles and improved long-term stability, homogeneity, and sample-to-sample reproducibility. This suggests better preservation of protein structure during the reconstitution procedure and leads to decreased cost per sample, production of fewer samples, and reduction of the NMR time needed to collect a high quality spectrum. Furthermore, this approach enabled reconstitution of protein into isotropic bicelles with a wider range of lipid compositions. These results are demonstrated with the small multidrug resistance transporter EmrE, a protein known to be highly sensitive to its environment.

Coupling efficiency of rhodopsin and transducin in bicelles

G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) can be activated by various extracellular stimuli, including hormones, peptides, odorants, neurotransmitters, nucleotides, or light. After activation, receptors interact with heterotrimeric G proteins and catalyze GDP release from the Gα subunit, the rate limiting step in G protein activation, to form a high affinity nucleotide-free GPCR-G protein complex. In vivo, subsequent GTP binding reduces affinity of the Gα protein for the activated receptor. In this study, we investigated the biochemical and structural characteristics of the prototypical GPCR, rhodopsin, and its signaling partner, transducin (G(t)), in bicelles to better understand the effects of membrane composition on high affinity complex formation, stability, and receptor mediated nucleotide release. Our results demonstrate that the high-affinity complex (rhodopsin-G(t)(empty)) forms more readily and has dramatically increased stability when rhodopsin is integrated into bicelles of a defined composition. We increased the half-life of functional complex to 1 week in the presence of negatively charged phospholipids. These data suggest that a membrane-like structure is an important contributor to the formation and stability of functional receptor-G protein complexes and can extend the range of studies that investigate properties of these complexes.

Contemporary methods in structure determination of membrane proteins by solution NMR

Integral membrane proteins are vital to life, being responsible for information and material exchange between a cell and its environment. Although high-resolution structural information is needed to understand how these functions are achieved, membrane proteins remain an under-represented subset of the protein structure databank. Solution NMR is increasingly demonstrating its ability to help address this knowledge shortfall, with the development of a diverse array of techniques to counter the challenges presented by membrane proteins. Here we document the advances that are helping to define solution NMR as an effective tool for membrane protein structure determination. Developments introduced over the last decade in the production of isotope-labeled samples, reconstitution of these samples into the growing selection of NMR-compatible membrane-mimetic systems, and the approaches used for the acquisition and application of structural restraints from these complexes are reviewed.

Thermodynamics of partitioning of substance P in isotropic bicelles

The temperature dependence of the partition of a neuropeptide, substance P (SP), in isotropic (q = 0.5) bicelles was investigated by using pulsed field gradient NMR diffusion technique. The partition coefficient decreases as the temperature is increased from 295 to 325 K, indicating a favorable (negative) enthalpy change upon partitioning of the peptide. Thermodynamic analysis of the data shows that the partitioning of SP at 300 K is driven by the enthalpic term (DeltaH) with the value of - 4.03 kcal mol(-1), while it is opposed by the entropic term (-TDeltaS) by approximately 1.28 kcal mol(-1) with a small negative change in heat capacity (DeltaC(p)). The enthalpy-driven process for the partition of SP in bicelles is the same as in dodecylphosphocholine (DPC) micelles, however, the negative entropy change in bicelles of flat bilayer surface is in sharp contrast with the positive entropy change in DPC micelles of highly curved surface, indicating that the curvature of the membrane surface might play a significant role in the partitioning of peptides.

Structure of membrane-bound amphidinol 3 in isotropic small bicelles

Amphidinol 3 (AM3) exhibits a potent membrane permeabilizing activity by forming pores in biological membranes. We examined the conformation and location of AM3 using isotropic bicelles, a more natural membrane model than micelles. The results show that AM3 takes turn structures at the two tetrahydropyran rings. Most of the hydrophilic region of the molecule is predominantly present in the surface, while the hydrophobic polyolefin penetrates in the bicelle interior.