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Bigo Simon A, Fores JR, Criado-Gonzalez M, Blandin L, Runser JY, Senger B, Fleith G, Schmutz M, Schurhammer R, Chaumont A, Schaaf P, Combet J, Jierry L. Mechanistic Insights into Hyaluronic Acid Induced Peptide Nanofiber Organization in Supramolecular Hydrogels. Biomacromolecules 2023; 24:3794-3805. [PMID: 37535455 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Composite hydrogels composed of low-molecular-weight peptide self-assemblies and polysaccharides are gaining great interest as new types of biomaterials. Interactions between polysaccharides and peptide self-assemblies are well reported, but a molecular picture of their impact on the resulting material is still missing. Using the phosphorylated tripeptide precursor Fmoc-FFpY (Fmoc, fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl; F, phenylalanine; Y, tyrosine; p, phosphate group), we investigated how hyaluronic acid (HA) influences the enzyme-assisted self-assembly of Fmoc-FFY generated in situ in the presence of alkaline phosphatase (AP). In the absence of HA, Fmoc-FFY peptides are known to self-assemble in nanometer thick and micrometer long fibers. The presence of HA leads to the spontaneous formation of bundles of several micrometers thickness. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), we find that in the bundles both (i) HA colocalizes with the peptide self-assemblies and (ii) its presence in the bundles is highly dynamic. The attractive interaction between negatively charged peptide fibers and negatively charged HA chains is explained through molecular dynamic simulations that show the existence of hydrogen bonds. Whereas the Fmoc-FFY peptide self-assembly itself is not affected by the presence of HA, this polysaccharide organizes the peptide nanofibers in a nematic phase visible by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The mean distance d between the nanofibers decreases by increasing the HA concentration c, but remains always larger than the diameter of the peptide nanofibers, indicating that they do not interact directly with each other. At a high enough HA concentration, the nematic organization transforms into an ordered 2D hexagonal columnar phase with a nanofiber distance d of 117 Å. Depletion interaction generated by the polysaccharides can explain the experimental power law variation d ∼ c - 1 / 4 and is responsible for the bundle formation and organization. Such behavior is thus suggested for the first time on nano-objects using polymers partially adsorbing on self-assembled peptide nanofibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Bigo Simon
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chimie, UMR7140, 1 rue Blaise Pascal, 67008 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Jennifer Rodon Fores
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, INSERM Unité 1121, CRBS, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 8 rue Sainte Elisabeth, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Miryam Criado-Gonzalez
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, INSERM Unité 1121, CRBS, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 8 rue Sainte Elisabeth, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Lucille Blandin
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
| | - Jean-Yves Runser
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, INSERM Unité 1121, CRBS, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 8 rue Sainte Elisabeth, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Bernard Senger
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, INSERM Unité 1121, CRBS, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 8 rue Sainte Elisabeth, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Guillaume Fleith
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
| | - Marc Schmutz
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
| | - Rachel Schurhammer
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chimie, UMR7140, 1 rue Blaise Pascal, 67008 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Alain Chaumont
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chimie, UMR7140, 1 rue Blaise Pascal, 67008 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Pierre Schaaf
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, INSERM Unité 1121, CRBS, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire, 8 rue Sainte Elisabeth, 67000 Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
| | - Jérôme Combet
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
| | - Loïc Jierry
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut Charles Sadron (UPR22), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg Cedex 2, BP 84047, France
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Denton AR, Davis WJ. Influence of solvent quality on depletion potentials in colloid-polymer mixtures. J Chem Phys 2021; 155:084904. [PMID: 34470346 DOI: 10.1063/5.0061370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
As first explained by the classic Asakura-Oosawa (AO) model, effective attractive forces between colloidal particles induced by depletion of nonadsorbing polymers can drive demixing of colloid-polymer mixtures into colloid-rich and colloid-poor phases, with practical relevance for purification of water, stability of foods and pharmaceuticals, and macromolecular crowding in biological cells. By idealizing polymer coils as effective penetrable spheres, the AO model qualitatively captures the influence of polymer depletion on thermodynamic phase behavior of colloidal suspensions. In previous work, we extended the AO model to incorporate aspherical polymer conformations and showed that fluctuating shapes of random-walk coils can significantly modify depletion potentials [W. K. Lim and A. R. Denton, Soft Matter 12, 2247 (2016); J. Chem. Phys. 144, 024904 (2016)]. We further demonstrated that the shapes of polymers in crowded environments sensitively depend on solvent quality [W. J. Davis and A. R. Denton, J. Chem. Phys. 149, 124901 (2018)]. Here, we apply Monte Carlo simulation to analyze the influence of solvent quality on depletion potentials in mixtures of hard-sphere colloids and nonadsorbing polymer coils, modeled as ellipsoids whose principal radii fluctuate according to random-walk statistics. We consider both self-avoiding and non-self-avoiding random walks, corresponding to polymers in good and theta solvents, respectively. Our simulation results demonstrate that depletion of polymers of equal molecular weight induces much stronger attraction between colloids in good solvents than in theta solvents and confirm that depletion interactions are significantly influenced by aspherical polymer conformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan R Denton
- Department of Physics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, USA
| | - Wyatt J Davis
- Department of Physics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, USA
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Abstract
Enzyme immobilization techniques are widely researched due to their wide range of applications. Polymer–protein core–shell nanoparticles (CSNPs) have emerged as a promising technique for enzyme/protein immobilization via a self-assembly process. Based on the desired application, different sizes and distribution of the polymer–protein CSNPs may be required. This work systematically studies the assembly process of poly(4-vinyl pyridine) and bovine serum albumin CSNPs. Average particle size was controlled by varying the concentrations of each reagent. Particle size and size distributions were monitored by dynamic light scattering, ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Results showed a wide range of CSNPs could be assembled ranging from an average radius as small as 52.3 nm, to particles above 1 µm by adjusting reagent concentrations. In situ X-ray scattering techniques monitored particle assembly as a function of time showing the initial particle growth followed by a decrease in particle size as they reach equilibrium. The results outline a general strategy that can be applied to other CSNP systems to better control particle size and distribution for various applications.
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Korpi A, Anaya-Plaza E, Välimäki S, Kostiainen M. Highly ordered protein cage assemblies: A toolkit for new materials. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 12:e1578. [PMID: 31414574 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Protein capsids are specialized and versatile natural macromolecules with exceptional properties. Their homogenous, spherical, rod-like or toroidal geometry, and spatially directed functionalities make them intriguing building blocks for self-assembled nanostructures. High degrees of functionality and modifiability allow for their assembly via non-covalent interactions, such as electrostatic and coordination bonding, enabling controlled self-assembly into higher-order structures. These assembly processes are sensitive to the molecules used and the surrounding conditions, making it possible to tune the chemical and physical properties of the resultant material and generate multifunctional and environmentally sensitive systems. These materials have numerous potential applications, including catalysis and drug delivery. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Korpi
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Aalto, Finland
| | - Eduardo Anaya-Plaza
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Aalto, Finland
| | - Salla Välimäki
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Aalto, Finland
| | - Mauri Kostiainen
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Aalto, Finland
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Virus capsid assembly across different length scales inspire the development of virus-based biomaterials. Curr Opin Virol 2019; 36:38-46. [PMID: 31071601 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2019.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In biology, there are an abundant number of self-assembled structures organized according to hierarchical levels of complexity. In some examples, the assemblies formed at each level exhibit unique properties and behaviors not present in individual components. Viruses are an example of such where first individual subunits come together to form a capsid structure, some utilizing a scaffolding protein to template or catalyze the capsid formation. Increasing the level of complexity, the viral capsids can then be used as building blocks of higher-level assemblies. This has inspired scientists to design and construct virus capsid-based functional nano-materials. This review provides some insight into the assembly of virus capsids across several length scales, and certain properties that arise at different levels, providing examples found in naturally occurring systems and those that are synthetically designed.
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Petrescu DS, Blum AS. Viral-based nanomaterials for plasmonic and photonic materials and devices. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 10:e1508. [PMID: 29418076 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, viruses have established themselves as a powerful tool in nanotechnology. Their proteinaceous capsids benefit from biocompatibility, chemical addressability, and a variety of sizes and geometries, while their ability to encapsulate, scaffold, and self-assemble enables their use for a wide array of purposes. Moreover, the scaling up of viral-based nanotechnologies is facilitated by high capsid production yield and speed, which is particularly advantageous when compared with slower and costlier lithographic techniques. These features enable the bottom-up fabrication of photonic and plasmonic materials, which relies on the precise arrangement of photoactive material at the nanoscale to control phenomena such as electromagnetic wave propagation and energy transfer. The interdisciplinary approach required for the fabrication of such materials combines techniques from the life sciences and device engineering, thus promoting innovative research. Materials with applications spanning the fields of sensing (biological, chemical, and physical sensors), nanomedicine (cellular imaging, drug delivery, phototherapy), energy transfer and conversion (solar cells, light harvesting, photocatalysis), metamaterials (negative refraction, artificial magnetism, near-field amplification), and nanoparticle synthesis are considered with exclusive emphasis on viral capsids and protein cages. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.
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Shear flow induced long-range ordering of rod-like viral nanoparticles within hydrogel. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 158:620-626. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Lim WK, Denton AR. Depletion-induced forces and crowding in polymer-nanoparticle mixtures: Role of polymer shape fluctuations and penetrability. J Chem Phys 2016; 144:024904. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4939766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Kang Lim
- Department of Physics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, USA
| | - Alan R. Denton
- Department of Physics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58108-6050, USA
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Uchida M, LaFrance B, Broomell CC, Prevelige PE, Douglas T. Higher order assembly of virus-like particles (VLPs) mediated by multi-valent protein linkers. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2015; 11:1562-1570. [PMID: 25641768 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201402067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Revised: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Two- and three-dimensional assembly of nanoparticles has generated significant interest because these higher order structures could exhibit collective behaviors/properties beyond those of the individual nanoparticles. Highly specific interactions between molecules, which biology exploits to regulate molecular assemblies such as DNA hybridization, often provide inspiration for the construction of higher order materials using bottom-up approaches. In this study, higher order assembly of virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from the bacteriophage P22 is demonstrated by using a small adaptor protein, Dec, which binds to symmetry specific sites on the P22 capsid. Two types of connector proteins, which have different number of P22 binding sites and different geometries (ditopic linker with liner geometry and tetratopic linker with tetrahedral geometry) have been engineered through either a point mutation of Dec or genetic fusion with another protein, respectively. Bulk assembly and layer-by-layer deposition of P22 VLPs from solution was successfully achieved using both of the engineered multi-topic linker molecules, while Dec with only a single binding site does not mediate P22 assembly. Beyond the two types of linkers developed in this study, a wide range of different connector geometries could be envisioned using a similar engineering approach. This is a powerful strategy to construct higher order assemblies of VLP based nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Uchida
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 East Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, CBB103, Bozeman, MT, 59717, USA
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Bocklitz T, Kämmer E, Stöckel S, Cialla-May D, Weber K, Zell R, Deckert V, Popp J. Single virus detection by means of atomic force microscopy in combination with advanced image analysis. J Struct Biol 2014; 188:30-8. [PMID: 25196422 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2014.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the present contribution virions of five different virus species, namely Varicella-zoster virus, Porcine teschovirus, Tobacco mosaic virus, Coliphage M13 and Enterobacteria phage PsP3, are investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). From the resulting height images quantitative features like maximal height, area and volume of the viruses could be extracted and compared to reference values. Subsequently, these features were accompanied by image moments, which quantify the morphology of the virions. Both types of features could be utilized for an automatic discrimination of the five virus species. The accuracy of this classification model was 96.8%. Thus, a virus detection on a single-particle level using AFM images is possible. Due to the application of advanced image analysis the morphology could be quantified and used for further analysis. Here, an automatic recognition by means of a classification model could be achieved in a reliable and objective manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bocklitz
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Evelyn Kämmer
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Stephan Stöckel
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Dana Cialla-May
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Karina Weber
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Roland Zell
- Department of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Volker Deckert
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Popp
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 4, 07743 Jena, Germany; InfectoGnostics Forschungscampus Jena e.V., Zentrum für Angewandte Forschung, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, 07745 Jena, Germany
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Liu Z, Niu ZW. Temperature responsive 3D structure of rod-like bionanoparticles induced by depletion interaction. CHINESE JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10118-014-1523-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Liljeström V, Mikkilä J, Kostiainen MA. Self-assembly and modular functionalization of three-dimensional crystals from oppositely charged proteins. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4445. [PMID: 25033911 PMCID: PMC4109007 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Multicomponent crystals and nanoparticle superlattices are a powerful approach to integrate different materials into ordered nanostructures. Well-developed, especially DNA-based, methods for their preparation exist, yet most techniques concentrate on molecular and synthetic nanoparticle systems in non-biocompatible environment. Here we describe the self-assembly and characterization of binary solids that consist of crystalline arrays of native biomacromolecules. We electrostatically assembled cowpea chlorotic mottle virus particles and avidin proteins into heterogeneous crystals, where the virus particles adopt a non-close-packed body-centred cubic arrangement held together by avidin. Importantly, the whole preparation process takes place at room temperature in a mild aqueous medium allowing the processing of delicate biological building blocks into ordered structures with lattice constants in the nanometre range. Furthermore, the use of avidin-biotin interaction allows highly selective pre- or post-functionalization of the protein crystals in a modular way with different types of functional units, such as fluorescent dyes, enzymes and plasmonic nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ville Liljeström
- Biohybrid Materials Group, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland
- Molecular Materials Group, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Joona Mikkilä
- Biohybrid Materials Group, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland
- Molecular Materials Group, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Mauri A. Kostiainen
- Biohybrid Materials Group, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, Aalto University, 00076 Aalto, Finland
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