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Ngocho K, Yang X, Wang Z, Hu C, Yang X, Shi H, Wang K, Liu J. Synthetic Cells from Droplet-Based Microfluidics for Biosensing and Biomedical Applications. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2400086. [PMID: 38563581 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202400086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic cells function as biological mimics of natural cells by mimicking salient features of cells such as metabolism, response to stimuli, gene expression, direct metabolism, and high stability. Droplet-based microfluidic technology presents the opportunity for encapsulating biological functional components in uni-lamellar liposome or polymer droplets. Verified by its success in the fabrication of synthetic cells, microfluidic technology is widely replacing conventional labor-intensive, expensive, and sophisticated techniques justified by its ability to miniaturize and perform batch production operations. In this review, an overview of recent research on the preparation of synthetic cells through droplet-based microfluidics is provided. Different synthetic cells including lipid vesicles (liposome), polymer vesicles (polymersome), coacervate microdroplets, and colloidosomes, are systematically discussed. Efforts are then made to discuss the design of a variety of microfluidic chips for synthetic cell preparation since the combination of microfluidics with bottom-up synthetic biology allows for reproductive and tunable construction of batches of synthetic cell models from simple structures to higher hierarchical structures. The recent advances aimed at exploiting them in biosensors and other biomedical applications are then discussed. Finally, some perspectives on the challenges and future developments of synthetic cell research with microfluidics for biomimetic science and biomedical applications are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kleins Ngocho
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Xilei Yang
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Zefeng Wang
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Cunjie Hu
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohai Yang
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Hui Shi
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Kemin Wang
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
| | - Jianbo Liu
- State key laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, P. R. China
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Chen L, Zhang S, Duan Y, Song X, Chang M, Feng W, Chen Y. Silicon-containing nanomedicine and biomaterials: materials chemistry, multi-dimensional design, and biomedical application. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:1167-1315. [PMID: 38168612 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs01022k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The invention of silica-based bioactive glass in the late 1960s has sparked significant interest in exploring a wide range of silicon-containing biomaterials from the macroscale to the nanoscale. Over the past few decades, these biomaterials have been extensively explored for their potential in diverse biomedical applications, considering their remarkable bioactivity, excellent biocompatibility, facile surface functionalization, controllable synthesis, etc. However, to expedite the clinical translation and the unexpected utilization of silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials, it is highly desirable to achieve a thorough comprehension of their characteristics and biological effects from an overall perspective. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the state-of-the-art progress of silicon-composed biomaterials, including their classification, characteristics, fabrication methods, and versatile biomedical applications. Additionally, we highlight the multi-dimensional design of both pure and hybrid silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials and their intrinsic biological effects and interactions with biological systems. Their extensive biomedical applications span from drug delivery and bioimaging to therapeutic interventions and regenerative medicine, showcasing the significance of their rational design and fabrication to meet specific requirements and optimize their theranostic performance. Additionally, we offer insights into the future prospects and potential challenges regarding silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials. By shedding light on these exciting research advances, we aspire to foster further progress in the biomedical field and drive the development of innovative silicon-composed nanomedicine and biomaterials with transformative applications in biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Chen
- Materdicine Lab, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, P. R. China.
| | - Shanshan Zhang
- Department of Ultrasound Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, P. R. China
| | - Yanqiu Duan
- Laboratory Center, Shanghai Municipal Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200071, P. R. China.
| | - Xinran Song
- Materdicine Lab, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, P. R. China.
| | - Meiqi Chang
- Laboratory Center, Shanghai Municipal Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200071, P. R. China.
| | - Wei Feng
- Materdicine Lab, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, P. R. China.
| | - Yu Chen
- Materdicine Lab, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, P. R. China.
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Gomes AS, Correia A, Rahikkala A, Mäkilä E, Pinto MM, Sousa E, Salonen J, Saraiva L, Santos HA. Folic acid-mesoporous silicon nanoparticles enhance the anticancer activity of the p73-activating small molecule LEM2. Int J Pharm 2022; 624:121959. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Kamakura R, Raza GS, Mäkilä E, Riikonen J, Kovalainen M, Ueta Y, Lehto VP, Salonen J, Herzig KH. Colonic Delivery of α-Linolenic Acid by an Advanced Nutrient Delivery System Prolongs Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion and Inhibits Food Intake in Mice. Mol Nutr Food Res 2021; 66:e2100978. [PMID: 34882959 PMCID: PMC9285029 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202100978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Scope Nutrients stimulate the secretion of glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1), an incretin hormone, secreted from enteroendocrine L‐cells which decreases food intake. Thus, GLP‐1 analogs are approved for the treatment of obesity, yet cost and side effects limit their use. L‐cells are mainly localized in the distal ileum and colon, which hinders the utilization of nutrients targeting GLP‐1 secretion. This study proposes a controlled delivery system for nutrients, inducing a prolonged endogenous GLP‐1 release which results in a decrease food intake. Methods and Results α‐Linolenic acid (αLA) was loaded into thermally hydrocarbonized porous silicon (THCPSi) particles. In vitro characterization and in vivo effects of αLA loaded particles on GLP‐1 secretion and food intake were studied in mice. A total of 40.4 ± 3.2% of loaded αLA is released from particles into biorelevant buffer over 24 h, and αLA loaded THCPSi significantly increased in vitro GLP‐1 secretion. Single‐dose orally given αLA loaded mesoporous particles increased plasma active GLP‐1 levels at 3 and 4 h and significantly reduced the area under the curve of 24 h food intake in mice. Conclusions αLA loaded THCPSi particles could be used to endogenously stimulate sustain gastrointestinal hormone release and reduce food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remi Kamakura
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, FI-90220, Finland
| | - Ghulam Shere Raza
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, FI-90220, Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, FI-20014, Finland
| | - Joakim Riikonen
- Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, FI-70211, Finland
| | - Miia Kovalainen
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, FI-90220, Finland
| | - Yoichi Ueta
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Kitakyushu, 807-8555, Japan
| | - Vesa-Pekka Lehto
- Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, FI-70211, Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, FI-20014, Finland
| | - Karl-Heinz Herzig
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, FI-90220, Finland.,Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Metabolic Diseases, Pediatric Institute, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, 60-572, Poland
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Jakobsson U, Mäkilä E, Rahikkala A, Imlimthan S, Lampuoti J, Ranjan S, Heino J, Jalkanen P, Köster U, Mizohata K, Santos HA, Salonen J, Airaksinen AJ, Sarparanta M, Helariutta K. Preparation and in vivo evaluation of red blood cell membrane coated porous silicon nanoparticles implanted with 155Tb. Nucl Med Biol 2020; 84-85:102-110. [PMID: 32334356 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2020.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Porous silicon (PSi) nanoparticles are capable of delivering therapeutic payloads providing targeted delivery and sustained release of the payloads. In this work we describe the development and proof-of-concept in vivo evaluation of thermally hydrocarbonized porous silicon (PSi) nanoparticles that are implanted with radioactive 155Tb atoms and coated with red blood cell (RBC) membrane (155Tb-THCPSi). The developed nanocomposites can be utilized as an intravenous delivery platform for theranostic radionuclides. METHODS THCPSi thin films were implanted with 155Dy ions that decay to 155Tb at the ISOLDE radioactive ion-beam (RIB) facility at CERN. The films were processed to nanoparticles by ball-milling and sonication, and subsequently coated with either a solid lipid and RBC membrane or solely with RBC membrane. The nanocomposites were evaluated in vitro for stability and in vivo for circulation half-life and ex vivo for biodistribution in Balb/c mice. RESULTS Nanoporous THCPSi films were successfully implanted with 155Tb and processed to coated nanoparticles. The in vitro stability of the particles in plasma and buffer solutions was not significantly different between the particle types, and therefore the RBC membrane coated particles with less laborious processing method were chosen for the biological evaluation. The RBC membrane coating enhanced significantly the blood half-life compared to bare THCPSi particles. In the ex vivo biodistribution study a pronounced accumulation to the spleen was found, with lower uptake in the liver and a minor uptake in the lung, gall bladder and bone marrow. CONCLUSIONS We have demonstrated, using 155Tb RIB-implanted PSi nanoparticles coated with mouse RBC membranes, the feasibility of using such a theranostic nanosystem for the delivery of RIB based radionuclides with prolonged circulation time. ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PATIENT CARE For the first time, the RIB implantation technique has been utilized to produce PSi nanoparticle with a surface modified for better persistence in circulation. When optimized, these particles could be used in targeted radionuclide therapy with a combination of chemotherapeutic payload within the PSi structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrika Jakobsson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki Institute of Physics, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Antti Rahikkala
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Sanjeev Ranjan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Finland; Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jouni Heino
- Helsinki Institute of Physics, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pasi Jalkanen
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Hélder A Santos
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Anu J Airaksinen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Finland; Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Finland
| | | | - Kerttuli Helariutta
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki Institute of Physics, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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Jones ECL, Bimbo LM. Crystallisation Behaviour of Pharmaceutical Compounds Confined within Mesoporous Silicon. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E214. [PMID: 32121652 PMCID: PMC7150833 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12030214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The poor aqueous solubility of new and existing drug compounds represents a significant challenge in pharmaceutical development, with numerous strategies currently being pursued to address this issue. Amorphous solids lack the repeating array of atoms in the structure and present greater free energy than their crystalline counterparts, which in turn enhances the solubility of the compound. The loading of drug compounds into porous materials has been described as a promising approach for the stabilisation of the amorphous state but is dependent on many factors, including pore size and surface chemistry of the substrate material. This review looks at the applications of mesoporous materials in the confinement of pharmaceutical compounds to increase their dissolution rate or modify their release and the influence of varying pore size to crystallise metastable polymorphs. We focus our attention on mesoporous silicon, due to the ability of its surface to be easily modified, enabling it to be stabilised and functionalised for the loading of various drug compounds. The use of neutron and synchrotron X-ray to examine compounds and the mesoporous materials in which they are confined is also discussed, moving away from the conventional analysis methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luis M. Bimbo
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK;
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Kalluri J, West J, Akkaraju GR, Canham LT, Coffer JL. Plant-Derived Tandem Drug/Mesoporous Silicon Microcarrier Structures for Anti-Inflammatory Therapy. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:8359-8364. [PMID: 31459924 PMCID: PMC6648573 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b00127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The properties of nanostructured plant-derived porous silicon (pSi) microparticles as potential candidates to increase the bioavailability of plant extracts possessing anti-inflammatory activity are described in this work. pSi drug carriers were fabricated using an eco-friendly route from the silicon accumulator plant bamboo (tabasheer) powder by magnesiothermic reduction of plant-derived silica and loaded with ethanolic extracts of Equisetum arvense, another silicon accumulator plant rich in polyphenolic compounds. The anti-inflammatory properties of the active therapeutics present in this extract were measured by sensitive luciferase reporter assays; this active extract was subsequently loaded and released from the pSi matrix, with a clear inhibition of the activity of the inflammatory signaling protein NF-κB over a period of hours in a sustained manner. Our results showed that after loading the extracts of E. arvense into pSi microparticles derived from tabasheer, enhanced anti-inflammatory activity was observed owing to enhanced solubility of the extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jhansi
R. Kalluri
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Department of Biology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas 76129, United States
| | - Julianna West
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Department of Biology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas 76129, United States
| | - Giridhar R. Akkaraju
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Department of Biology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas 76129, United States
| | - Leigh T. Canham
- Nanoscale
Physics, Chemistry, and Engineering Research Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.
| | - Jeffery L. Coffer
- Nanoscale
Physics, Chemistry, and Engineering Research Laboratory, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.
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8
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Tieu T, Alba M, Elnathan R, Cifuentes‐Rius A, Voelcker NH. Advances in Porous Silicon–Based Nanomaterials for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.201800095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Terence Tieu
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences Monash University Parkville Campus, 381 Royal Parade Parkville Victoria 3052 Australia
- T. Tieu, Dr. M. Alba, Prof. N. H. Voelcker CSIRO Manufacturing Bayview Avenue Clayton Victoria 3168 Australia
| | - Maria Alba
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences Monash University Parkville Campus, 381 Royal Parade Parkville Victoria 3052 Australia
- T. Tieu, Dr. M. Alba, Prof. N. H. Voelcker CSIRO Manufacturing Bayview Avenue Clayton Victoria 3168 Australia
| | - Roey Elnathan
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences Monash University Parkville Campus, 381 Royal Parade Parkville Victoria 3052 Australia
| | - Anna Cifuentes‐Rius
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences Monash University Parkville Campus, 381 Royal Parade Parkville Victoria 3052 Australia
| | - Nicolas H. Voelcker
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences Monash University Parkville Campus, 381 Royal Parade Parkville Victoria 3052 Australia
- Prof. N. H. Voelcker Melbourne Centre for Nanofabrication Victorian Node of the Australian National Fabrication Facility 151 Wellington Road Clayton Victoria 3168 Australia
- T. Tieu, Dr. M. Alba, Prof. N. H. Voelcker CSIRO Manufacturing Bayview Avenue Clayton Victoria 3168 Australia
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9
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Weems AC, Li W, Maitland DJ, Calle LM. Polyurethane Microparticles for Stimuli Response and Reduced Oxidative Degradation in Highly Porous Shape Memory Polymers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:32998-33009. [PMID: 30184426 PMCID: PMC7433764 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b11082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Shape memory polymers (SMPs) have been found to be promising biomaterials for a variety of medical applications; however, the clinical translation of such technology is dependent on tailorable properties such as gravimetric changes in degradation environments. For SMPs synthesized from amino-alcohols, oxidation resulting in rapid mass loss may be problematic in terms of loss of material functionality as well as toxicity and cytocompatibility concerns. Control of gravimetric changes was achieved through the incorporation of small molecule antioxidants, either directly into the polymer matrix or included in microparticles to form a SMP composite material. With direct incorporation of small molecule phenolic antioxidant 2,2'-methylenebis(6- tert-butyl)-methylphenol (Methyl), SMPs displayed reduce strain recovery by more than 50% (Methyl) and increase elastic modulus from approximately 1.4 to 2.3 MPa, at the expense of the strain to failure being reduced from 45% to 32%. Importantly, such changes could not ensure retention of the antioxidants and therefore did not increase oxidative stability beyond 15 days in accelerated oxidative conditions (equivalent to approximately 800 days in porcine aneurysms) in all cases except for the inclusion of a hindered amine that capped network growth, which also resulted in shape memory reduction (only 80% recoverable strain achieved). However, the inclusion of antioxidants in microparticles was found to produce materials with similar thermomechanical ( Tg migration below 1.0 °C) and shape recovery of 100%, while increasing oxidative resistance compared to controls (oxidation onset was delayed by 3 days and material lifespan increased to approximately 20-22 days in accelerated oxidative solution or beyond 1000 days in the porcine aneurysm). The microparticle composite SMPs also act as a platform for environmental sensing, such as pH-dependent fluorescence shifts and payload release, as demonstrated by fluorescent dye studies using phloxine B and nile blue chloride and the release of antioxidants over a 3 week period. The use of polyurethane-urea microparticles in porous SMPs is demonstrated to increase biostability of the materials, by approximately 25%, and ultimately extend their lifespan for use in aneurysm occlusion as determined through calculated in vivo degradation rates corresponding to a porcine aneurysm environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. C. Weems
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77840, United States
| | - W. Li
- Corrosion Technology Laboratory, NASA, Kennedy Space Center, Florida 32899, United States
| | - D. J. Maitland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77840, United States
| | - L. M. Calle
- Corrosion Technology Laboratory, NASA, Kennedy Space Center, Florida 32899, United States
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Hanada M, Jermain SV, Lu X, Su Y, Williams RO. Predicting physical stability of ternary amorphous solid dispersions using specific mechanical energy in a hot melt extrusion process. Int J Pharm 2018; 548:571-585. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Li W, Liu Z, Fontana F, Ding Y, Liu D, Hirvonen JT, Santos HA. Tailoring Porous Silicon for Biomedical Applications: From Drug Delivery to Cancer Immunotherapy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1703740. [PMID: 29534311 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 09/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
In the past two decades, porous silicon (PSi) has attracted increasing attention for its potential biomedical applications. With its controllable geometry, tunable nanoporous structure, large pore volume/high specific surface area, and versatile surface chemistry, PSi shows significant advantages over conventional drug carriers. Here, an overview of recent progress in the use of PSi in drug delivery and cancer immunotherapy is presented. First, an overview of the fabrication of PSi with various geometric structures is provided, with particular focus on how the unique geometry of PSi facilitates its biomedical applications, especially for drug delivery. Second, surface chemistry and modification of PSi are discussed in relation to the strengthening of its performance in drug delivery and bioimaging. Emerging technologies for engineering PSi-based composites are then summarized. Emerging PSi advances in the context of cancer immunotherapy are also highlighted. Overall, very promising research results encourage further exploration of PSi for biomedical applications, particularly in drug delivery and cancer immunotherapy, and future translation of PSi into clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Zehua Liu
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Flavia Fontana
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Yaping Ding
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Dongfei Liu
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jouni T Hirvonen
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
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12
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Salonen J, Mäkilä E. Thermally Carbonized Porous Silicon and Its Recent Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1703819. [PMID: 29484727 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in research on thermally carbonized porous silicon (TCPSi) and its applications is reported. Despite a slow start, thermal carbonization has now started to gain interest mainly due to new emerging areas for applications. These new areas, such as optical sensing, drug delivery, and energy storage, require stable surface chemistry and physical properties. TCPSi is known to have all of these desired properties. Herein, the above-listed properties of TCPSi are summarized, and the carbonization processes, functionalization, and characterization of TCPSi are reviewed. Moreover, some of the emerging fields of TCPSi applications are discussed and recent advances in the fields are introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarno Salonen
- Industrial Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Industrial Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland
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13
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Kaasalainen M, Aseyev V, von Haartman E, Karaman DŞ, Mäkilä E, Tenhu H, Rosenholm J, Salonen J. Size, Stability, and Porosity of Mesoporous Nanoparticles Characterized with Light Scattering. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2017; 12:74. [PMID: 28124301 PMCID: PMC5267583 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-017-1853-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Silicon-based mesoporous nanoparticles have been extensively studied to meet the challenges in the drug delivery. Functionality of these nanoparticles depends on their properties which are often changing as a function of particle size and surrounding medium. Widely used characterization methods, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscope (TEM) have both their weaknesses. We hypothesize that conventional light scattering (LS) methods can be used for a rigorous characterization of medium sensitive nanoparticles' properties, like size, stability, and porosity. Two fundamentally different silicon-based nanoparticles were made: porous silicon (PSi) from crystalline silicon and silica nanoparticles (SN) through sol-gel process. We studied the properties of these mesoporous nanoparticles with two different multiangle LS techniques, DLS and static light scattering (SLS), and compared the results to dry-state techniques, TEM, and nitrogen sorption. Comparison of particle radius from TEM and DLS revealed significant overestimation of the DLS result. Regarding to silica nanoparticles, the overestimation was attributed to agglomeration by analyzing radius of gyration and hydrodynamic radius. In case of PSi nanoparticles, strong correlation between LS result and specific surface area was found. Our results suggest that the multiangle LS methods could be used for the size, stability, and structure characterization of mesoporous nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martti Kaasalainen
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Vladimir Aseyev
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 HY Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eva von Haartman
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Didem Şen Karaman
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Heikki Tenhu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 HY Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jessica Rosenholm
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
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14
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Almeida PV, Shahbazi MA, Correia A, Mäkilä E, Kemell M, Salonen J, Hirvonen J, Santos HA. A multifunctional nanocomplex for enhanced cell uptake, endosomal escape and improved cancer therapeutic effect. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2017; 12:1401-1420. [PMID: 28524813 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2017-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To evaluate the chemotherapeutic potential of a novel multifunctional nanocomposite encapsulating both porous silicon (PSi) and gold (Au) nanoparticles in a polymeric nanocomplex. MATERIALS & METHODS The nanocomposite was physicochemically characterized and evaluated in vitro for biocompatibility, cellular internalization, endosomolytic properties, cytoplasmatic drug delivery and chemotherapeutic efficacy. RESULTS The nanocomposites were successfully produced and exhibited adequate physicochemical properties and superior in vitro cyto- and hemocompatibilities. The encapsulation of PSi nanoparticles in the nanocomplexes significantly enhanced their cellular internalization and enabled their endosomal escape, resulting in the efficient cytoplasmic delivery of these nanosystems. Sorafenib-loaded nanocomposites showed a potent in vitro antiproliferative effect on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. CONCLUSION The multifunctional nanocomposite herein presented exhibits great potential as a chemotherapeutic nanoplatform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick V Almeida
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E (P.O. Box 56), FI-00014 Finland
| | - Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E (P.O. Box 56), FI-00014 Finland.,Department of Micro- & Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 KGs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E (P.O. Box 56), FI-00014 Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E (P.O. Box 56), FI-00014 Finland.,Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Finland
| | - Marianna Kemell
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1 (P.O. Box 55), FI-00014 Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Finland
| | - Jouni Hirvonen
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E (P.O. Box 56), FI-00014 Finland
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry & Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E (P.O. Box 56), FI-00014 Finland.,Helsinki Institute of Life Science, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, FI-00014Helsinki, Finland
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15
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Shahbazi MA, Almeida PV, Correia A, Herranz-Blanco B, Shrestha N, Mäkilä E, Salonen J, Hirvonen J, Santos HA. Intracellular responsive dual delivery by endosomolytic polyplexes carrying DNA anchored porous silicon nanoparticles. J Control Release 2017; 249:111-122. [PMID: 28159519 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bioresponsive cytosolic nanobased multidelivery has been emerging as an enormously challenging novel concept due to the intrinsic protective barriers of the cells and hardly controllable performances of nanomaterials. Here, we present a new paradigm to advance nano-in-nano integration technology amenable to create multifunctional nanovehicles showing considerable promise to overcome restrictions of intracellular delivery, solve impediments of endosomal localization and aid effectual tracking of nanoparticles. A redox responsive intercalator chemistry comprised of cystine and 9-aminoacridine is designed as a cross-linker to cap carboxylated porous silicon nanoparticles with DNA. These intelligent nanocarriers are then encapsulated within novel one-pot electrostatically complexed nano-networks made of a zwitterionic amino acid (cysteine), an anionic bioadhesive polymer (poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-maleic acid)) and a cationic endosomolytic polymer (polyethyleneimine). This combined nanocomposite is successfully tested for the co-delivery of hydrophobic (sorafenib) or hydrophilic (calcein) molecules loaded within the porous core, and an imaging agent covalently integrated into the polyplex shell by click chemistry. High loading capacity, low cyto- and hemo-toxicity, glutathione responsive on-command drug release, and superior cytosolic delivery are shown as achievable key features of the proposed formulation. Overall, formulating drug molecules, DNA and imaging agents, without any interference, in a physico-chemically optimized carrier may open a path towards broad applicability of these cost-effective multivalent nanocomposites for treating different diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Patrick Vingadas Almeida
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Barbara Herranz-Blanco
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Neha Shrestha
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Ermei Mäkilä
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland; Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014, Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014, Finland
| | - Jouni Hirvonen
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014, Finland.
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16
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Mäkilä E, Kivelä H, Shrestha N, Correia A, Kaasalainen M, Kukk E, Hirvonen J, Santos HA, Salonen J. Influence of Surface Chemistry on Ibuprofen Adsorption and Confinement in Mesoporous Silicon Microparticles. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:13020-13029. [PMID: 27951684 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The effect of adsorption and confinement on ibuprofen was studied by immersion loading the molecules into porous silicon (PSi) microparticles. The PSi microparticles were modified into thermally oxidized PSi (TOPSi) and thermally hydrocarbonized PSi (THCPSi) to evaluate the effects of the loading solvent and the surface chemistry on the obtainable drug payloads. The payloads, location, and the molecular state of the adsorbed drug were evaluated using thermal analysis. The results showed that after the adsorption of ∼800 mg/cm3 (wdrug/vpores) of drug into the mesopores, depending on the solvent used in the immersion, the drug began to rapidly recrystallize on the external surface of the particles. Moderate concentrations, however, enabled payloads of 800-850 mg/cm3 without excessive surface crystallization, and thus, there was no need for rinsing the samples to remove the externally crystallized portion. The results showed that the confined ibuprofen forms nanocrystals inside of the mesopores after approximately 200 mg/cm3 payloads were obtained, accounting for half of the adsorbed drug amount. The presence of both crystalline and noncrystalline phases was further characterized using variable temperature solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements. The interactions between the drug molecules and the pore walls of TOPSi and THCPSi were observed using Fourier transform infrared and 1H NMR spectroscopies, and the hydrogen bonding between the silanol groups of TOPSi and the adsorbed ibuprofen was confirmed, but having only limited effect on the overall state of the confined drug. In vitro drug permeation studies in Caco-2 and Caco-2/HT29 cocultures showed that the adsorption onto hydrophilic or hydrophobic PSi microparticles had no significant effects on the ibuprofen permeation, whether the drug was partially nanocrystalline or completely in a liquidlike state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ermei Mäkilä
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki , Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | | | - Neha Shrestha
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki , Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki , Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | | | | | - Jouni Hirvonen
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki , Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki , Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
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18
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Roine J, Kaasalainen M, Peurla M, Correia A, Araújo F, Santos HA, Murtomaa M, Salonen J. Controlled Dissolution of Griseofulvin Solid Dispersions from Electrosprayed Enteric Polymer Micromatrix Particles: Physicochemical Characterization and in Vitro Evaluation. Mol Pharm 2015; 12:2254-64. [DOI: 10.1021/mp500787b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jorma Roine
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Martti Kaasalainen
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Markus Peurla
- Laboratory
of Electron Microscopy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Alexandra Correia
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Francisca Araújo
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
- INEB—Instituto
de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Rua do Campo
Alegre, 823, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
- ICBAS—Instituto
Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Hélder A. Santos
- Division
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matti Murtomaa
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Jarno Salonen
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
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Huber P. Soft matter in hard confinement: phase transition thermodynamics, structure, texture, diffusion and flow in nanoporous media. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2015; 27:103102. [PMID: 25679044 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/27/10/103102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Spatial confinement in nanoporous media affects the structure, thermodynamics and mobility of molecular soft matter often markedly. This article reviews thermodynamic equilibrium phenomena, such as physisorption, capillary condensation, crystallisation, self-diffusion, and structural phase transitions as well as selected aspects of the emerging field of spatially confined, non-equilibrium physics, i.e. the rheology of liquids, capillarity-driven flow phenomena, and imbibition front broadening in nanoporous materials. The observations in the nanoscale systems are related to the corresponding bulk phenomenologies. The complexity of the confined molecular species is varied from simple building blocks, like noble gas atoms, normal alkanes and alcohols to liquid crystals, polymers, ionic liquids, proteins and water. Mostly, experiments with mesoporous solids of alumina, gold, carbon, silica, and silicon with pore diameters ranging from a few up to 50 nm are presented. The observed peculiarities of nanopore-confined condensed matter are also discussed with regard to applications. A particular emphasis is put on texture formation upon crystallisation in nanoporous media, a topic both of high fundamental interest and of increasing nanotechnological importance, e.g. for the synthesis of organic/inorganic hybrid materials by melt infiltration, the usage of nanoporous solids in crystal nucleation or in template-assisted electrochemical deposition of nano structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Huber
- Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Institute of Materials Physics and Technology, Eißendorfer Str. 42, D-21073 Hamburg-Harburg (Germany
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20
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Kaasalainen M, Rytkönen J, Mäkilä E, Närvänen A, Salonen J. Electrostatic interaction on loading of therapeutic peptide GLP-1 into porous silicon nanoparticles. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:1722-9. [PMID: 25604519 DOI: 10.1021/la5047047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Porous silicon (PSi) nanoparticles' tunable properties are facilitating their use at highly challenging medical tasks such as peptide delivery. Because of many different mechanisms that are affecting the interaction between the peptide and the particle, the drug incorporation into the mesoporous delivery system is not straightforward. We have studied the adsorption and loading of incretin hormone glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP-1) on PSi nanoparticles. The results show that the highest loading degree can be achieved in pH values near the isoelectric point of peptide, and the phenomenon is independent of the surface's zeta potential. In order to study the interaction between the peptide and the nanoparticle, we studied the adsorption with lower concentrations and noticed that also non-Coulombic forces have a big role in adsorption of GLP-1. Adsorption is effective and pH-independent especially on low peptide concentrations and onto more hydrophobic nanoparticles. Reversibility of adsorption was studied as a function of buffer pH. When the loading is compared to the total mass of the formulation, the loading degree is 29%, and during desorption experiments 25% is released in 4 h and can be considered as a reversible loading degree. Thus, the peptides adsorbed first seem to create irreversibly adsorbed layer that facilitates reversible adsorption of following peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martti Kaasalainen
- Laboratory of Industrial Physics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku , FI-20014 Turku, Finland
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22
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In vitro assessment of biopolymer-modified porous silicon microparticles for wound healing applications. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2014; 88:635-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2014.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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