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Identification and Detection of Bioactive Peptides in Milk and Dairy Products: Remarks about Agro-Foods. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25153328. [PMID: 32707993 PMCID: PMC7435915 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25153328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Food-based components represent major sources of functional bioactive compounds. Milk is a rich source of multiple bioactive peptides that not only help to fulfill consumers 'nutritional requirements but also play a significant role in preventing several health disorders. Understanding the chemical composition of milk and its products is critical for producing consistent and high-quality dairy products and functional dairy ingredients. Over the last two decades, peptides have gained significant attention by scientific evidence for its beneficial health impacts besides their established nutrient value. Increasing awareness of essential milk proteins has facilitated the development of novel milk protein products that are progressively required for nutritional benefits. The need to better understand the beneficial effects of milk-protein derived peptides has, therefore, led to the development of analytical approaches for the isolation, separation and identification of bioactive peptides in complex dairy products. Continuous emphasis is on the biological function and nutritional characteristics of milk constituents using several powerful techniques, namely omics, model cell lines, gut microbiome analysis and imaging techniques. This review briefly describes the state-of-the-art approach of peptidomics and lipidomics profiling approaches for the identification and detection of milk-derived bioactive peptides while taking into account recent progress in their analysis and emphasizing the difficulty of analysis of these functional and endogenous peptides.
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Agyei D, Pan S, Acquah C, Bekhit AEDA, Danquah MK. Structure-informed detection and quantification of peptides in food and biological fluids. J Food Biochem 2017; 43:e12482. [PMID: 31353495 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Peptides with biological properties, that is, bioactive peptides, are a class of biomolecules whose health-promoting properties are increasingly being exploited in food and health products. However, research on targeted techniques for the detection and quantification of these peptides is still in its infancy. Such information is needed in order to enhance the biological and chemometric characterization of peptides and their subsequent application in the functional food and pharmaceutical industries. In this review, the role of classic techniques such as electrophoretic, chromatographic, and peptide mass spectrometry in the structure-informed detection and quantitation of bioactive peptides are discussed. Prospects for the use of aptamers in the characterization of bioactive peptides are also discussed. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Although bioactive peptides have huge potential applications in the functional foods and health area, there are limited techniques in enhancing throughput detection, quantification, and characterization of these peptides. This review discusses state-of-the-art techniques relevant in complementing bioactive detection and profiling irrespective of the small number of amino acid units. Insights into challenges, possible remedies and prevailing areas requiring thorough research in the extant literature for food chemists and biotechnologists are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Agyei
- Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Sharadwata Pan
- School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising 85354, Germany
| | - Caleb Acquah
- Curtin Malaysia Research Institute, Curtin University, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia
| | | | - Michael K Danquah
- Curtin Malaysia Research Institute, Curtin University, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia
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Peptidomics as a tool for characterizing bioactive milk peptides. Food Chem 2017; 230:91-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Yoneyama T, Ohtsuki S, Tachikawa M, Uchida Y, Terasaki T. Scrambled Internal Standard Method for High-Throughput Protein Quantification by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Proteome Res 2017; 16:1556-1565. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiro Yoneyama
- Division
of Membrane Transport and Drug Targeting, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | - Sumio Ohtsuki
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 5-1 Oe-honmachi, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
- Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED) CREST, Tokyo 100-0004, Japan
| | - Masanori Tachikawa
- Division
of Membrane Transport and Drug Targeting, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yasuo Uchida
- Division
of Membrane Transport and Drug Targeting, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Terasaki
- Division
of Membrane Transport and Drug Targeting, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
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Rzagalinski I, Volmer DA. Quantification of low molecular weight compounds by MALDI imaging mass spectrometry - A tutorial review. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2016; 1865:726-739. [PMID: 28012871 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2016.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI)-mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) permits label-free in situ analysis of chemical compounds directly from the surface of two-dimensional biological tissue slices. It links qualitative molecular information of compounds to their spatial coordinates and distribution within the investigated tissue. MALDI-MSI can also provide the quantitative amounts of target compounds in the tissue, if proper calibration techniques are performed. Obviously, as the target molecules are embedded within the biological tissue environment and analysis must be performed at their precise locations, there is no possibility for extensive sample clean-up routines or chromatographic separations as usually performed with homogenized biological materials; ion suppression phenomena therefore become a critical side effect of MALDI-MSI. Absolute quantification by MALDI-MSI should provide an accurate value of the concentration/amount of the compound of interest in relatively small, well-defined region of interest of the examined tissue, ideally in a single pixel. This goal is extremely challenging and will not only depend on the technical possibilities and limitations of the MSI instrument hardware, but equally on the chosen calibration/standardization strategy. These strategies are the main focus of this article and are discussed and contrasted in detail in this tutorial review. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MALDI Imaging, edited by Dr. Corinna Henkel and Prof. Peter Hoffmann.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacy Rzagalinski
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dietrich A Volmer
- Institute of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
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Nishizuka SS, Mills GB. New era of integrated cancer biomarker discovery using reverse-phase protein arrays. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2016; 31:35-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2015.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Hill RC, Oman TJ, Shan G, Schafer B, Eble J, Chen C. Development and Validation of a Multiplexed Protein Quantitation Assay for the Determination of Three Recombinant Proteins in Soybean Tissues by Liquid Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7450-61. [PMID: 26237374 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b03083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Currently, traditional immunochemistry technologies such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) are the predominant analytical tool used to measure levels of recombinant proteins expressed in genetically engineered (GE) plants. Recent advances in agricultural biotechnology have created a need to develop methods capable of selectively detecting and quantifying multiple proteins in complex matrices because of increasing numbers of transgenic proteins being coexpressed or "stacked" to achieve tolerance to multiple herbicides or to provide multiple modes of action for insect control. A multiplexing analytical method utilizing liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been developed and validated to quantify three herbicide-tolerant proteins in soybean tissues: aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase (AAD-12), 5-enol-pyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (2mEPSPS), and phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT). Results from the validation showed high recovery and precision over multiple analysts and laboratories. Results from this method were comparable to those obtained with ELISA with respect to protein quantitation, and the described method was demonstrated to be suitable for multiplex quantitation of transgenic proteins in GE crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C Hill
- Dow AgroSciences, LLC , 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, United States
| | - Trent J Oman
- Dow AgroSciences, LLC , 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, United States
| | - Guomin Shan
- Dow AgroSciences, LLC , 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, United States
| | - Barry Schafer
- Dow AgroSciences, LLC , 9330 Zionsville Road, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, United States
| | - Julie Eble
- Critical Path Services, LLC , 3070 McCann Farm Drive, Garnet Valley, Pennsylvania 19060, United States
| | - Cynthia Chen
- Critical Path Services, LLC , 3070 McCann Farm Drive, Garnet Valley, Pennsylvania 19060, United States
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Hartmann EM, Colquhoun DR, Schwab KJ, Halden RU. Absolute quantification of norovirus capsid protein in food, water, and soil using synthetic peptides with electrospray and MALDI mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2015; 286:525-32. [PMID: 25603302 PMCID: PMC4369174 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Revised: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus infections are one of the most prominent public health problems of microbial origin in the U.S. and other industrialized countries. Surveillance is necessary to prevent secondary infection, confirm successful cleanup after outbreaks, and track the causative agent. Quantitative mass spectrometry, based on absolute quantitation with stable-isotope labeled peptides, is a promising tool for norovirus monitoring because of its speed, sensitivity, and robustness in the face of environmental inhibitors. In the current study, we present two new methods for the detection of the norovirus genogroup I capsid protein using electrospray and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry. The peptide TLDPIEVPLEDVR was used to quantify norovirus-like particles down to 500 attomoles with electrospray and 100 attomoles with MALDI. With MALDI, we also demonstrate a detection limit of 1 femtomole and a quantitative dynamic range of 5 orders of magnitude in the presence of an environmental matrix effect. Due to the rapid processing time and applicability to a wide range of environmental sample types (bacterial lysate, produce, milk, soil, and groundwater), mass spectrometry-based absolute quantitation has a strong potential for use in public health and environmental sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica M Hartmann
- Center for Environmental Security and Security Defense Systems Initiative, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 781 E. Terrace Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287-5904, USA
| | - David R Colquhoun
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Kellogg J Schwab
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Rolf U Halden
- Center for Environmental Security and Security Defense Systems Initiative, The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 781 E. Terrace Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287-5904, USA; Department of Environmental Health Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Lesur A, Domon B. Advances in high-resolution accurate mass spectrometry application to targeted proteomics. Proteomics 2015; 15:880-90. [PMID: 25546610 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Targeted quantitative proteomic analyses aim at systematically measuring the abundance of proteins in large sets of samples, without biases or missing values. One typical implementation is the verification of biomarker candidates in bodily fluids, which measures extended lists of validated transitions using triple quadrupole instruments in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. However, the selectivity of this mass spectrometer is limited by the resolving power of its mass analyzers, and interferences may require the reanalysis of the samples. Despite the efforts undertaken in the development of software, and resources to design SRM studies, and to analyze and validate the data, the process remains tedious and time consuming. The development of fast scanning high-resolution and accurate mass (HRAM) spectrometers, such as the quadrupole TOF and the quadrupole orbitrap instruments, offers alternatives for targeted analyses. The selectivity of HRAM measurements in complex samples is greatly improved by effectively separating co-eluting interferences. The fragment ion chromatograms are extracted from the high-resolution MS/MS data using a narrow mass tolerance. The entire process is straightforward as the selection of fragment ions is performed postacquisition. This account describes the different HRAM techniques and discusses their advantages and limitations in the context of targeted proteomic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Lesur
- Luxembourg Clinical Proteomics Center (LCP), CRP-Santé, Strassen, Luxembourg
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Bilbao A, Varesio E, Luban J, Strambio-De-Castillia C, Hopfgartner G, Müller M, Lisacek F. Processing strategies and software solutions for data-independent acquisition in mass spectrometry. Proteomics 2015; 15:964-80. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aivett Bilbao
- Proteome Informatics Group; SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics; Geneva Switzerland
- Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Geneva; University of Lausanne; Geneva Switzerland
| | - Emmanuel Varesio
- Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Geneva; University of Lausanne; Geneva Switzerland
| | - Jeremy Luban
- Program in Molecular Medicine; University of Massachusetts Medical School; Worcester MA USA
| | | | - Gérard Hopfgartner
- Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Geneva; University of Lausanne; Geneva Switzerland
| | - Markus Müller
- Proteome Informatics Group; SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics; Geneva Switzerland
- Faculty of Sciences; University of Geneva; Geneva Switzerland
| | - Frédérique Lisacek
- Proteome Informatics Group; SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics; Geneva Switzerland
- Faculty of Sciences; University of Geneva; Geneva Switzerland
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Porta T, Lesur A, Varesio E, Hopfgartner G. Quantification in MALDI-MS imaging: what can we learn from MALDI-selected reaction monitoring and what can we expect for imaging? Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 407:2177-87. [PMID: 25486918 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8315-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Quantification by mass spectrometry imaging (Q-MSI) is one of the hottest topics of the current discussions among the experts of the MS imaging community. If MSI is established as a powerful qualitative tool in drug and biomarker discovery, its reliability for absolute and accurate quantification (QUAN) is still controversial. Indeed, Q-MSI has to deal with several fundamental aspects that are difficult to control, and to account for absolute quantification. The first objective of this manuscript is to review the state-of-the-art of Q-MSI and the current strategies developed for absolute quantification by direct surface sampling from tissue sections. This includes comments on the quest for the perfect matrix-matched standards and signal normalization approaches. Furthermore, this work investigates quantification at a pixel level to determine how many pixels must be considered for accurate quantification by ultraviolet matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), the most widely used technique for MSI. Particularly, this study focuses on the MALDI-selected reaction monitoring (SRM) in rastering mode, previously demonstrated as a quantitative and robust approach for small analyte and peptide-targeted analyses. The importance of designing experiments of good quality and the use of a labeled compound for signal normalization is emphasized to minimize the signal variability. This is exemplified by measuring the signal for cocaine and a tryptic peptide (i.e., obtained after digestion of a monoclonal antibody) upon different experimental conditions, such as sample stage velocity, laser power and frequency, or distance between two raster lines. Our findings show that accurate quantification cannot be performed on a single pixel but requires averaging of at least 4-5 pixels. The present work demonstrates that MALDI-SRM/MSI is quantitative with precision better than 10-15 %, which meets the requirements of most guidelines (i.e., in bioanalysis or toxicology) for quantification of drugs or peptides from tissue homogenates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany Porta
- Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, University of Lausanne, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211, Geneva 4, Switzerland
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Simon ES, Papoulias PG, Andrews PC. Selective collision-induced fragmentation of ortho-hydroxybenzyl-aminated lysyl-containing tryptic peptides. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2013; 27:1619-1630. [PMID: 23765610 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.6611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE In protein studies that employ tandem mass spectrometry the manipulation of protonated peptide fragmentation through exclusive dissociation pathways may be preferred in some applications over the comprehensive amide backbone fragmentation that is typically observed. In this study, we characterized the selective cleavage of the side-chain Cζ-Nε bond of peptides with ortho-hydroxybenzyl-aminated lysine residues. METHODS Internal lysyl residues of representative peptides were derivatized via reductive amination with ortho-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The modified peptides were analyzed using collision-induced dissociation (CID) on an Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometer. Theoretical calculations using computational methods (density functional theory) were performed to investigate the potential dissociation mechanisms for the Cζ-Nε bond of the derivatized lysyl residue resulting in the formation of the observed product ions. RESULTS Tandem mass spectra of the derivatized peptide ions exhibit product peaks corresponding to selective cleavage of the side-chain Cζ-Nε bond that links the derivative to lysine. The ortho-hydroxybenzyl derivative is released either as a neutral moiety [C7H6O1] or as a carbocation [C7H7O1](+) through competing pathways (retro-Michael versus Carbocation Elimination (CCE), respectively). The calculated transition state activation barriers indicate that the retro-Michael pathway is kinetically favored over CCE and both are favored over amide cleavage. CONCLUSIONS The application of ortho-hydroxybenzyl amination is a promising peptide derivatization scheme for promoting selective dissociation pathways in the tandem mass spectrometry of protonated peptides. This can be implemented in the rational development of peptide reactive reagents for applications that may benefit from selective fragmentation paths (including crosslinking or MRM reagents).
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Affiliation(s)
- E S Simon
- Departments of Biological Chemistry, Bioinformatics, and Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48103, USA.
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Hopfgartner G, Lesur A, Varesio E. Analysis of biopharmaceutical proteins in biological matrices by LC-MS/MS II. LC-MS/MS analysis. Trends Analyt Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2013.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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L.S. Tang N, Poon T, Poon TCW. Advances in MALDI mass spectrometry in clinical diagnostic applications. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2013; 336:139-75. [PMID: 23563502 PMCID: PMC7121589 DOI: 10.1007/128_2012_413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The concept of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI MS) was first reported in 1985. Since then, MALDI MS technologies have been evolving, and successfully used in genome, proteome, metabolome, and clinical diagnostic research. These technologies are high-throughput and sensitive. Emerging evidence has shown that they are not only useful in qualitative and quantitative analyses of proteins, but also of other types of biomolecules, such as DNA, glycans, and metabolites. Recently, parallel fragmentation monitoring (PFM), which is a method comparable to selected reaction monitoring, has been reported. This highlights the potentials of MALDI-TOF/TOF tandem MS in quantification of metabolites. Here we critically review the applications of the major MALDI MS technologies, including MALDI-TOF MS, MALDI-TOF/TOF MS, SALDI-TOF MS, MALDI-QqQ MS, and SELDI-TOF MS, to the discovery and quantification of disease biomarkers in biological specimens, especially those in plasma/serum specimens. Using SELDI-TOF MS as an example, the presence of systemic bias in biomarker discovery studies employing MALDI-TOF MS and its possible solutions are also discussed in this chapter. The concepts of MALDI, SALDI, SELDI, and PFM are complementary to each other. Theoretically, all these technologies can be combined, leading to the next generation of the MALDI MS technologies. Real applications of MALDI MS technologies in clinical diagnostics should be forthcoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson L.S. Tang
- grid.10784.3a0000000419370482Dept. of Chemical Pathology and Lab. of Genetics of Disease Suscept., The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Terence Poon
- grid.10784.3a0000000419370482Department of Paediatrics and Proteomics Laboratory, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
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