Bidirectional effects between parenting sensitivity and child behavior: A cross-lagged analysis across middle childhood and adolescence

Paternal and Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Sensitivity: Links with Trajectories of Socioemotional Problems in Toddlerhood

Parental depressive symptoms and sensitivity have well-documented consequences for children; however, studies considering both parents are still scarce. This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the respective roles of paternal and maternal depressive symptoms and sensitivity in predicting the development of child socioemotional problems during toddlerhood. We also investigated the buffering role of each parent's sensitivity in the associations between the other parent's depressive symptoms and toddlers' socioemotional problems. The sample consisted of 140 Canadian families who were visited in their homes when children were around 13 (T1), 19 (T2), and 27 (T3) months of age. At T1, both parents' sensitivity was assessed from observations of parent-child interactions at home and each parent reported on his or her own depressive symptoms. At T1, T2, and T3, maternal and paternal perceptions of their toddler's socioemotional problems were assessed and aggregated. Growth curve analyses revealed that paternal and maternal depressive symptoms as well as paternal sensitivity were unique and persistent predictors of child socioemotional problems and that sensitive fathering acted as a buffer in the context of maternal depressive symptoms. This study highlights the importance of considering both parents when studying risk and protective factors for young children's socioemotional problems.

Parent-child interactive behavior in a German sample of parents with and without a mental illness: model replication and adaption of the Coding Interactive Behavior system

Studies using observational measures often fail to meet statistical standards for both reliability and validity. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Coding Interactive Behavior (CIB) System within a German sample of parent-child dyads. The sample consisted of 149 parents with and without a mental illness and their children [n experimental group (EG) = 75, n control group (CG) = 74] who participated in the larger Children of Mentally Ill Parents at Risk Evaluation (COMPARE) study. The age of the children ranged from 3 to 12 years (M = 7.99, SD = 2.5). Exploratory factor analysis supported a five-factor model of the CIB with items describing 1) parental sensitivity/reciprocity, 2) parental intrusiveness, 3) child withdrawal, 4) child involvement, and 5) parent limit setting/child compliance. Compared to international samples, the model was reduced by two independent dyadic factors. Testing for predictive validity identified seven items with predictive power to differentiate parental group membership. The CIB factors did not seem to be sufficiently sensitive to illustrate differences in interaction within a sample of parents with various mental illnesses. To apply the CIB to the described sample or similar ones in the future, additional measurement instruments may be necessary.

Prospective within-family bidirectional effects between parental emotion socialization practices and Chinese adolescents' psychosocial adjustment

Previous research indicates that parental emotion socialization (ES) practices play important roles in adolescents' social and emotional development. However, longitudinal studies testing bidirectional effects are relatively scarce. Additionally, most studies have focused on people from Western societies. In the current 3-year, multi-informant, longitudinal study of Chinese adolescents and their parents, we investigated prospective bidirectional effects between parental positive ES practices and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (i.e., self-esteem and depressive symptoms). Adolescents (N = 710 at T1, 50% boys, Mage = 12.41, SD = 0.59) reported on parental positive ES practices and their own depressive symptoms and self-esteem when they were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grade. Mothers and fathers reported on their own use of positive ES practices at all three time points. We utilized a random intercept cross-lagged panel model to examine between- and within-family effects. Overall results showed robust effects of adolescent depressive symptoms on parental positive ES practices and bidirectional effects between parental ES and adolescent self-esteem. Effects differed by informants whether using adolescent-perceived data, or mother- or father-reported data. However, these child effects and bidirectional effects did not differ by adolescent sex. Our findings add to the understanding of parental ES and adolescent psychosocial adjustment.

Mentalizing in first-time fathers: reflective functioning as a mediator between attachment representation and sensitivity

Sensitivity in parent-child interaction is essential for child development. Since fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, identifying factors leading to paternal sensitivity is crucial. We examined the relation between attachment representation and reflective functioning (RF) as factors influencing paternal sensitivity in a longitudinal study including N = 40 first-time fathers (Mage = 33) and their 6-month-old children. We used the Adult Attachment Interview during pregnancy to assess paternal attachment representation and general RF, the Parental Development Interview to assess fathers' parental RF, and the Emotional Availability Scale to measure sensitivity at child's age of 6 month. Data show that secure paternal attachment representation, high general and parental RF are associated with higher levels of paternal sensitivity. Further, parental RF mediates the association between attachment representation and paternal sensitivity. These findings contribute to the identification of a causal interplay in that they suggest an explanatory effect of RF on the association between fathers' attachment representation, and sensitivity.

Supportive parent-adolescent relationships as a foundation for adolescent emotion regulation and adjustment

Introduction

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of supportive parent-adolescent relationships on adolescent adjustment (i.e., prosocial behavior, aggression, depressive symptoms) both directly and indirectly (via adolescent emotion regulation). Scholars have posited that adolescent emotion regulation (ER) may serve as an underlying mechanism in the link between parenting and adolescent adjustment. Supportive parent-adolescent relationships (i.e., openness, acceptance, emotional responsiveness) may be a key emotion socialization mechanism influencing adolescent ER.

Methods

The sample included 206 adolescents (Age Range= 10-18years; 51% female; 70.4% ethnic minorities) and one primary caregiver (83.3% biological mothers, 38.7% single parents). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was implemented to investigate the direct and indirect (via adolescent ER) effects of supportive parent-adolescent relationships on adolescent adjustment. We also explored whether these indirect and direct effects varied by adolescent sex and age.

Results

Results suggested direct and indirect (via adolescent ER) links between supportive parent-adolescent relationships and adolescent prosocial behavior, aggressive behavior, and depressive symptoms. Moreover, evidence indicated that many of these pathways were significant for boys but not girls. No evidence of youth age as a moderator was found.

Discussion

These findings highlight the important role supportive parent-adolescent relationships play in adolescent emotional and behavioral adjustment. Parenting programs could focus on facilitating a mutually responsive parent-adolescent relationship with a specific focus on the dynamic nature of emotion socialization during adolescence.

Maternal socialization of emotion and the development of emotion regulation in early adolescent girls

Regulation of negative emotions is a core competency of child development. Parental emotion socialization profoundly influences later capacity to regulate negative affect in childhood and adolescence. The present study examined the effects of maternal emotion socialization on the development of emotion regulation in the context of a longitudinal study of 210 mother-daughter dyads. Dyads completed a conflict resolution task when the child was age 11 years during which maternal warmth and hostility were coded. At ages 11 to 13 years, mothers completed self-report measures of supportive and nonsupportive responses to child negative emotion, and children completed self-reports of inhibition and adaptive regulation of sadness and anger. We used latent growth curve modeling to estimate changes in inhibition and adaptive regulation of sadness and anger over time; observed maternal warmth and hostility were included as time-invariant covariates and maternal self-report of supportive and nonsupportive responses were included as time-varying covariates. Observed maternal warmth was positively associated with girls' adaptive regulation of anger and sadness at age 11 years. Maternal self-reported supportive responses to girls' negative affect were positively associated with girls' adaptive regulation of anger, and nonsupportive responses were negatively associated with adaptive regulation of anger and sadness. These findings support the role of maternal emotion socialization and indicate specific effects of maternal warmth and supportive responses in the development of girls' capacity to modulate negative emotions during early adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Everyday Conflict in Families at Risk for Violence Exposure: Examining Unique, Bidirectional Associations with Children's Anxious- and Withdrawn-Depressed Symptoms

Exposure to family conflict during childhood increases risk for the development of anxiety and mood problems, though the potential for bidirectionality in this association remains unknown. It is also unclear whether nonviolent family conflict is related to children's anxious- and withdrawn-depressive symptoms within high-risk family contexts, independent of more severe events such as children's exposure to violent victimization. Participants included 1,281 children and their caregivers identified as being at high risk for family violence, interviewed prospectively at ages 6, 8, and 10 about family conflict, children's anxious- and withdrawn-depressive behaviors, and children's victimization experiences. After controlling for cumulative victimization prior to and between each time point, significant cross-lagged, bidirectional associations were identified between family conflict and children's anxious- and withdrawn-depressive symptoms across ages 6 and 8, but not across ages 8 and 10. Invariance testing revealed no differences in model fit between boys and girls and minimal differences depending on whether families were reported for maltreatment prior to recruitment. Findings are partially supportive of a conceptualization of the family-child relationship that is reciprocal, while highlighting the role of daily negative familial interactions, over and above experiences of victimization, in predicting anxious- and withdrawn-depressed symptoms in early and middle childhood.

Attachment and prosocial behavior in middle childhood: The role of emotion regulation

There is a lack of research on the development of prosocial behavior in middle childhood. The current study addressed this gap through the application of attachment theory; attachment security has been shown to promote prosocial behavior in early childhood, and emotion regulation may be an important intervening variable in this association. A sample of 199 children (aged 6-12 years) reported on their attachment internal working models for the mother-child and father-child relationships, parents reported on child emotion regulation and emotional lability/dysregulation, and children completed a sticker donation task to assess their prosocial behavior. Child emotional lability/dysregulation served as an intervening variable in the association between father-child attachment security (communication and trust) and greater sticker donation. Mother-child and father-child attachment security was also associated with child emotion regulation, but emotion regulation was not associated with sticker donation. Findings suggest that secure attachment may foster prosocial behavior toward peers in middle childhood primarily by reducing dysregulated responses to the distress of others.

Patterns of adversity and post-traumatic stress among children adopted from care

BACKGROUND

Children adopted from care are more likely to have experienced early adversity, but little is known about the impact of early adversity on later post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate sub-groups of adversity in a sample of adopted children and examine the association with later PTS symptoms.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

A study of British children adopted from care using social worker records (N = 374) and questionnaire-based longitudinal study of n = 58 children over 4-years post adoptive placement.

METHODS

We used latent class analysis to identify subgroups of children based on commonalities in perinatal and postnatal adversity experienced prior to adoption and examined differences in PTS symptoms at 4-years post-placement between subgroups.

RESULTS

Nearly one in five (19 %) children were in the clinical or borderline ranges for symptoms of PTS arousal, 14 % for PTS avoidance and 8 % for PTS intrusion. The 5-class solution fitted the data best, with one class characterized by children with a low probability of experiencing any adversity, one perinatal adversity class and three classes capturing different patterns of adversity. The multiple complex adversity class involving both perinatal and postnatal adversity had significantly higher symptoms of PTS avoidance and arousal than other sub-groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence and complexity of PTS symptoms among adoptive children highlights the need for effective interventions considering different profiles of early adversity.

Individual differences in sensitivity to positive home environment among children "at risk" for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review

Although the evidence for the genetic basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is strong, environmental factors, such as the quality of parenting or the home environment, may moderate such genetic liability. The plausible negative effect of a low-quality home environment and negative parenting on child outcomes is well-established; however, the positive effect of a high-quality environment and positive parenting remained largely uninvestigated. Due to the presence of genetic, temperamental, or physiological factors, children who were traditionally considered at-risk for ADHD may be more sensitive to aspects of their environment compared to children who are not at such risk. Therefore, they would be more affected by their environmental experience, either for good or bad. Under supportive environmental conditions, such at-risk individuals might actually outperform their non-vulnerable peers, suggesting that these individual factors might be considered susceptibility factors rather than risk factors. Little is known regarding the positive effect of the environment in the ADHD literature, but it has been demonstrated in cognitive functions that are closely associated with ADHD, such as executive functions (EF). We review this literature and examine the extant empirical support for sensitivity to aspects of the home environment and parenting in the case of ADHD and EF. Moreover, we review factors that could help identify the specific aspects of the home environment and parenting that these children might be more susceptible to. Such knowledge could be valuable when designing preventive interventions and identifying those children that are especially sensitive and could benefit from such interventions. Recommendations for future studies are discussed as well.

A longitudinal test of acculturative family distancing theory explaining latino/a/x adolescents' adjustment

According to acculturative family distancing theory, adolescents' perceptions of cultural incongruencies with parents can diminish the quality of parent-adolescent relationships and, as a result, harm adolescent adjustment. Using four time points of data for a sample of 547 diverse Latino/a/x adolescents, this study examined how parent-adolescent relationship quality and acculturative family distancing were associated with changes in adolescent school performance and internalizing symptoms. At baseline, the school-based sample ranged from 11- to 14-years-old (M = 12.78) and included slightly more females (55%) than males (45%). Cross-lagged structural equation model results indicated that adolescent reports of greater acculturative family distancing were associated with adolescent perceived increases in parent-adolescent conflict and decreases in parental support. Conflict mediated associations between acculturative family distancing and decreased school performance. Associations between parent-child relationship qualities and Latino/a/x adolescent adjustment were bidirectional.

Parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems: A meta-analytic review

Meta-analytic associations between observed parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems were examined (children aged 0-17 years). Studies (k = 108, N = 28,114) contained sociodemographically diverse samples, primarily from North America and Europe, reporting on parent-child dyads (95% mothers; 54% boys). Sensitivity significantly related to internalizing (k = 69 studies; N = 14,729; r = -.08, 95% CI [-.12, -.05]) and externalizing (k = 94; N = 25,418; r = -.14, 95% CI [-.17, -.11]) problems, with stronger associations found for externalizing. For internalizing problems, associations were significantly stronger among samples with low socioeconomic status (SES) versus mid-high SES, in peer-reviewed versus unpublished dissertations, and in studies using composite versus single scale sensitivity measures. No other moderators emerged as significant.

Bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in Chinese preschool children: the Shenzhen Longhua Child Cohort Study

The bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in Chinese children attending preschools were rarely discussed. A study covering 171 preschools in Longhua District of Shenzhen, China was conducted among children when they first attended preschools. Parents of children reported the self-perceived parenting styles and their children's conduct problems using validated questionnaires. The bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in children were assessed using multivariate linear or logistic regressions in both cross-sectional and cohort settings. In cross-sectional settings, the bidirectional associations were present in all dimensions of parenting styles with children's conduct problems. After 1.01 years of follow-up, increases in parenting dimensions of rejection, control attempts, and favoring subject were significantly associated with children's conduct problems at follow-up, while increases in emotional warmth of parents significantly reduced such risk. In addition, parents of children who had conduct problems at baseline but regressed to normal at follow-up showed decreased scores in negative parenting dimensions. In contrast, among children who developed conduct problems during the study period, the scores of rejection and favoring subject in their parents have increased significantly, while the scores of emotional warmth have decreased. Parent-to-child effect was similar between fathers and mothers, while child-to-parent effect was stronger in fathers than that in mothers. In order to stop the negative feedback loop between poor parenting styles and children's conduct problems, our study underscored the importance of intervention not only in parents but also in their children.

Paternal Sensitivity and Children's Cognitive and Socioemotional Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Review

In a series of meta-analyses, paternal sensitivity was associated with children's (age range: 7 months-9 years) overall cognitive functioning (N = 3,193; k = 23; r = .19), including language skills (k = 9; r = .21), cognitive ability (k = 9; r = .18), and executive function (k = 8; r = .19). Paternal sensitivity was not associated with children's overall socioemotional functioning (N = 2,924; k = 24; r = -.03) or internalizing problems, but it was associated with children's emotion regulation (k = 7; r = .22) and externalizing problems (k = 19; r = -.08). In the broad cognitive functioning, executive function, broad socioemotional functioning, and externalizing problems meta-analyses, child age was a significant moderator.

Household Chaos, Parental Responses to Emotion, and Child Emotion Regulation in Middle Childhood

Parents' responses to children's negative emotional states play a key role in the socialization of emotion regulation skills in childhood. Much of the prior research on child ER has focused on early development using cross-sectional designs. The current study addresses these gaps by using a longitudinal design to examine individual differences of ER at two times points in middle childhood. We examined the development of children's ER by testing hypotheses about the interplay of parent response to emotions and household chaos in the prediction of individual differences in children's ER. Participants were the mothers of children at 6 and 9 years of age among 224 families in a socioeconomically diverse sample that was part of an ongoing longitudinal study. Mothers completed questionnaires regarding themselves, their children, and their home environment. Mothers' reports of better child ER at both time points were positively associated with mothers' more supportive responses and negatively associated with mothers' less non-supportive responses, as well as lower household chaos. Chaos statistically moderated the link between non-supportive parental responses to emotion and child ER, but only at 6 years of age. The strength of the link between child ER and non-supportive parental responses to emotions was strong only at lower levels of household chaos. At the beginning of middle childhood, family processes linking parent responses to child emotions and children's developing ER may not function at higher levels of household chaos.

Parent Self-Compassion and Supportive Responses to Child Difficult Emotion: An Intergenerational Theoretical Model Rooted in Attachment

Self-compassion is an adaptive way of self-relating that entails tending to one's emotional pain with understanding and care. In this paper, we propose an intergenerational model explaining how self-compassion develops within the context of the parent-child relationship. Specifically, we posit that parents who have had supportive experiences with their own childhood caregivers develop a secure attachment and a high level of self-compassion. In turn, we propose that high self-compassion in parents promotes the parents' capacity to support their child when he or she experiences difficult emotions (e.g., anger, sadness). These responses promote the child's secure attachment, high self-compassion development and positive behavioral outcomes. A key area for future research is examining the potential link between parent self-compassion and responses to difficult emotions in the child. Given self-compassion can be enhanced through intervention, support for this model will have broad implications for interrupting intergenerational cycles of dysfunction caused by insecure attachment.

Adverse Childhood Experiences of Children Adopted from Care: The Importance of Adoptive Parental Warmth for Future Child Adjustment

We investigated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and children's internalising symptoms and externalising problems in the Wales Adoption Cohort Study, a prospective longitudinal study that used case file records (n = 374) for a sample of British children adopted from care (M = 2 years, 55% male). Parents (n = 96) completed questionnaires at 3-5 months, 15-17 months, and 31-33 months post-placement. We hypothesised that: (1) children adopted from care would have experienced more ACEs than children in the general population; (2) the number of ACEs would be associated with higher internalising symptom and externalising problem scores; and (3) adoptive parental warmth would moderate the relationship between ACEs and post-placement internalising symptoms and externalising problems. Nearly half (42%) of the children experienced four or more ACEs. Internalising symptoms and externalising problems were significantly higher than the UK general population. The number of ACEs was associated with internalising symptoms 3 years post-adoptive placement but this relationship was moderated by adoptive parental warmth. This study profiles the experiences and characteristics of a national sample of adopted children and highlights the potential importance of parent warmth as a factor that ameliorates the impact of ACEs on poor child outcomes.

Genetic moderation of the effects of the Family Check-Up intervention on children's internalizing symptoms: A longitudinal study with a racially/ethnically diverse sample

Development involves synergistic interplay among genotypes and the physical and cultural environments, and integrating genetics into experimental designs that manipulate the environment can improve understanding of developmental psychopathology and intervention efficacy. Consistent with differential susceptibility theory, individuals can vary in their sensitivity to environmental conditions including intervention for reasons including their genotype. As a consequence, understanding genetic influences on intervention response is critical. Empirically, we tested an interaction between a genetic index representing sensitivity to the environment and the Family Check-Up intervention. Participants were drawn from the Early Steps Multisite randomized prevention trial that included a low-income and racially/ethnically diverse sample of children and their families followed longitudinally (n = 515). As hypothesized, polygenic sensitivity to the environment moderated the effects of the intervention on 10-year-old children's symptoms of internalizing psychopathology, such that children who were genetically sensitive and were randomly assigned to the intervention had fewer symptoms of child psychopathology than genetically sensitive children assigned to the control condition. A significant difference in internalizing symptoms assessed with a clinical interview emerged between the intervention and control groups for those 0.493 SD above the mean on polygenic sensitivity, or 25% of the sample. Similar to personalized medicine, it is time to understand individual and sociocultural differences in treatment response and individualize psychosocial interventions to reduce the burden of child psychopathology and maximize well-being for children growing up in a wide range of physical environments and cultures.