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Diab S, Ferrini P, Dominey AP, Whiting MP, Wickens JR, Ashworth IW, Rainey TJ. Investigation of the Formaldehyde-Catalyzed NNitrosation of Dialkyl Amines: An Automated Experimental and Kinetic Modelling Study Using Dibutylamine. J Pharm Sci 2024; 113:1624-1635. [PMID: 38307493 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2024.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The potential for drug substances and drug products to contain low levels of N-nitrosamines is of continued interest to the pharmaceutical industry and regulatory authorities. Acid-promoted nitrosation mechanisms in solution have been investigated widely in the literature and are supported by kinetic modelling studies. Carbonyl compounds, particularly formaldehyde, which may be present as impurities in excipients and drug product packaging components or introduced during drug substance manufacturing processes are also known to catalyze nitrosation, but their impact on the risk of N-nitrosamine formation has not been systematically investigated to date. In this study, we experimentally investigated the multivariate impact of formaldehyde, nitrite and pH on N-nitrosation in aqueous solution using dibutylamine as a model amine. We augmented a published kinetic model by adding formaldehyde-catalyzed nitrosation reactions. We validated the new kinetic model vs. the experimental data and then used the model to systematically investigate the impact of formaldehyde levels on N-nitrosamine formation. Simulations of aqueous solution systems show that at low formaldehyde levels the formaldehyde-catalyzed mechanisms are insignificant in comparison to other routes. However, formaldehyde-catalyzed mechanisms can become more significant at neutral and high pH under higher formaldehyde levels. Model-based sensitivity analysis demonstrated that under high nitrite levels and low formaldehyde levels (where the rate of formaldehyde-catalyzed nitrosation is low compared to the acid-promoted pathways) the model can be used with kinetic parameters for model amines in the literature without performing additional experiments to fit amine-specific parameters. For other combinations of reaction parameters containing formaldehyde, the formaldehyde-catalyzed kinetics are non-negligible, and thus it is advised that, under such conditions, additional experiments should be conducted to reliably use the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir Diab
- GSK, Park Road, Ware SG12 0DP, United Kingdom.
| | - Paola Ferrini
- GSK, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage SG1 2NY, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Ian W Ashworth
- Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield, SK10 2NA United Kingdom
| | - Trevor J Rainey
- Gilead Sciences, 333 Lakeside Drive, Foster City, CA 94404, United States
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2
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Mihai MA, Spataru T, Somacescu S, Moga OG, Preda L, Florea M, Kuncser A, Spataru N. Nitrite anodic oxidation at Ni(II)/Ni(III)-decorated mesoporous SnO 2 and its analytical applications. Analyst 2023; 148:6028-6035. [PMID: 37888977 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01249b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Hydrothermally formed mesoporous SnO2 was used as a support for nickel chemical deposition and, after subsequent thermal treatment, a high specific surface area (36 m2 g-1) Ni/SnO2 material was obtained. XPS analysis has shown that in the Sn 3d region the spectrum is similar to that of pristine SnO2, whereas Ni species are present on the surface as NiO, Ni2O3 and Ni(OH)2. Mixing Ni/SnO2 with a small amount of Black Pearls (BP) leads to a significant enhancement of the resulting Ni/SnO2-BP composite activity for nitrite anodic oxidation, presumably due to the higher surface area (115 m2 g-1), to better electrical conductivity and to a certain contribution of the BP to an increase in surface density of the active sites. Ni/SnO2-BP also outperforms pristine BP (in terms of Tafel slopes and electron-transfer rates), most likely due to the fact that the Ni(II)/Ni(III) couple can act as an electrocatalyst for nitrite oxidation. A voltammetric method is proposed for the determination of nitrite, over a concentration range of three orders of magnitude (0.05 to 20 mM), with good reproducibility, high stability and excellent sensitivity. The high upper limit of the dynamic range of the analytically useful response might provide a basis for the reliable quantification of nitrite in wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marius Alexandru Mihai
- Institute of Physical Chemistry "Ilie Murgulescu", 202 Spl. Independenţei, 060021, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Tanta Spataru
- Institute of Physical Chemistry "Ilie Murgulescu", 202 Spl. Independenţei, 060021, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Simona Somacescu
- Institute of Physical Chemistry "Ilie Murgulescu", 202 Spl. Independenţei, 060021, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Olivia Georgeta Moga
- Institute of Physical Chemistry "Ilie Murgulescu", 202 Spl. Independenţei, 060021, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Loredana Preda
- Institute of Physical Chemistry "Ilie Murgulescu", 202 Spl. Independenţei, 060021, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Mihaela Florea
- National Institute of Materials Physics, 405A Atomistilor Street, 077125 Magurele, Romania
| | - Andrei Kuncser
- National Institute of Materials Physics, 405A Atomistilor Street, 077125 Magurele, Romania
| | - Nicolae Spataru
- Institute of Physical Chemistry "Ilie Murgulescu", 202 Spl. Independenţei, 060021, Bucharest, Romania.
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Ponting DJ, Dobo KL, Kenyon MO, Kalgutkar AS. Strategies for Assessing Acceptable Intakes for Novel N-Nitrosamines Derived from Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients. J Med Chem 2022; 65:15584-15607. [PMID: 36441966 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The detection of N-nitrosamines, derived from solvents and reagents and, on occasion, the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) at higher than acceptable levels in drug products, has led regulators to request a detailed review for their presence in all medicinal products. In the absence of rodent carcinogenicity data for novel N-nitrosamines derived from amine-containing APIs, a conservative class limit of 18 ng/day (based on the most carcinogenic N-nitrosamines) or the derivation of acceptable intakes (AIs) using structurally related surrogates with robust rodent carcinogenicity data is recommended. The guidance has implications for the pharmaceutical industry given the vast number of marketed amine-containing drugs. In this perspective, the rate-limiting step in N-nitrosamine carcinogenicity, involving cytochrome P450-mediated α-carbon hydroxylation to yield DNA-reactive diazonium or carbonium ion intermediates, is discussed with reference to the selection of read-across analogs to derive AIs. Risk-mitigation strategies for managing putative N-nitrosamines in the preclinical discovery setting are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Ponting
- Lhasa Limited, Granary Wharf House, 2 Canal Wharf, Leeds LS11 5PS, United Kingdom
| | - Krista L Dobo
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Michelle O Kenyon
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, 1 Portland Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Ashworth IW, Dirat O, Teasdale A, Whiting M. Potential for the Formation of N-Nitrosamines during the Manufacture of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients: An Assessment of the Risk Posed by Trace Nitrite in Water. Org Process Res Dev 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian W. Ashworth
- Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield SK10 2NA, United Kingdom
| | - Olivier Dirat
- Pfizer R&D UK Limited, Discovery Park, Ramsgate Road, Sandwich CT13 9NJ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Teasdale
- Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield SK10 2NA, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Whiting
- Chemical Development, GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage SG1 2NY, United Kingdom
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Li Z, Chen T, Cui F, Xie Y, Xu W. Impact of chitosan and polyacrylamide on formation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous disinfection by-products. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 178:26-33. [PMID: 28314125 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Coagulation is one of the most commonly used practices in water treatment to remove natural organic matter, which can serve as precursors for disinfection by-products (DBPs). Furthermore, some coagulant aids, particularly amine-based polymers, could foster the formation of both carbonaceous and nitrogenous DBPs (C-DBPs and N-DBPs, respectively). In this study, we evaluated the formation potentials of 11 C-DBPs and N-DBPs during chloramination when two coagulant aids, chitosan and polyacrylamide (PAM), were used under typical water treatment conditions. Our results suggest that both chitosan and PAM promote the formation of N-DBPs, while neither affects the formation of C-DBPs. We further investigated a potential method to mitigate the formation of N-DBPs. Methyl iodide (MeI), an alkylating agent, was effective at reducing the formation of N-DBPs by converting amine to quaternary ammonium groups in chitosan. 1H-NMR results confirmed that the quaternarization reaction did take place. This study reports that chitosan, a natural coagulant, and PAM contribute to the formation of toxic DBPs. More importantly, it provides a preventative strategy for curbing the formation of DBPs through chemical structural modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Villanova University Villanova, PA 19085, USA
| | - Ting Chen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Villanova University Villanova, PA 19085, USA; College of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Fuyi Cui
- College of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Yuefeng Xie
- Civil and Environmental Programs, Pennsylvania State University Middletown, PA 17057, USA
| | - Wenqing Xu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Villanova University Villanova, PA 19085, USA.
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Abstract
Cocamidopropyl Betaine (CAPB) is a zwitterionic ammonium compound that is used primarily as an amphoteric surfactant in shampoos, conditioners, and other cleaning preparations. The oral LD50 of full-strength CAPB was 4.91 g/kg in mice and 7.45 ml/kg in rats. In a 28-day short-term study, CAPB treatment-induced lesions were produced in the nonglandular portion of the stomach in the high-dose group but not in the low-dose group. A test concentration of 4.5% active CAPB produced slight conjunctival irritation in unrinsed eyes and very slight conjunctival irritation in rinsed eyes. CAPB solutions with 7.5 and 10% activity were not irritating to intact or abraded rabbit skin. When a 15% active solution was tested under occlusive patches for 24 h, well-defined erythema and edema were observed. No evidence of delayed contact hypersensitivity was found in guinea pigs topically administered solutions of 10% active CAPB. No irritation or sensitization was reported in human studies when 3.0% active CAPB was tested. CAPB was nonmutagenic in four different assay systems. The number of pulmonary adenomas, hepatic hemangiomas, and malignant lymphomas found in mice administered a nonoxidative hair dye formulation containing 0.01% active CAPB for 20 months was similar to the number found in controls. Due to the irritation potential of CAPB, it is concluded that the maximum activity of CAPB used in leave-on cosmetic formulations should not exceed 3.0%. The limitation is expressed as a 10% v/v dilution of a commercial sample that has an activity of 30%. The use of CAPB in rinse-off products is considered to be safe as currently applied.
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Zhu L, Schade GW, Nielsen CJ. Real-time monitoring of emissions from monoethanolamine-based industrial scale carbon capture facilities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:14306-14314. [PMID: 24215596 DOI: 10.1021/es4035045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate the capabilities and properties of using Proton Transfer Reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS) to real-time monitor gaseous emissions from industrial scale amine-based carbon capture processes. The benchmark monoethanolamine (MEA) was used as an example of amines needing to be monitored from carbon capture facilities, and to describe how the measurements may be influenced by potentially interfering species in CO2 absorber stack discharges. On the basis of known or expected emission compositions, we investigated the PTR-ToF-MS MEA response as a function of sample flow humidity, ammonia, and CO2 abundances, and show that all can exhibit interferences, thus making accurate amine measurements difficult. This warrants a proper sample pretreatment, and we show an example using a dilution with bottled zero air of 1:20 to 1:10 to monitor stack gas concentrations at the CO2 Technology Center Mongstad (TCM), Norway. Observed emissions included many expected chemical species, dominantly ammonia and acetaldehyde, but also two new species previously not reported but emitted in significant quantities. With respect to concerns regarding amine emissions, we show that accurate amine quantifications in the presence of water vapor, ammonia, and CO2 become feasible after proper sample dilution, thus making PTR-ToF-MS a viable technique to monitor future carbon capture facility emissions, without conventional laborious sample pretreatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo , P.O. Box 1033 Blindern, 0315, Oslo, Norway
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Slack PT, Wainwright T. HORDENINE AS THE PRECURSOR OF NDMA IN MALT. JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/j.2050-0416.1981.tb04028.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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9
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Burnett CL, Bergfeld WF, Belsito DV, Hill RA, Klaassen CD, Liebler D, Marks JG, Shank RC, Slaga TJ, Snyder PW, Andersen FA. Final Report of the Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel on the Safety Assessment of Cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB). Int J Toxicol 2012; 31:77S-111S. [DOI: 10.1177/1091581812447202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) and related amidopropyl betaines are zwitterions used mainly as surfactants in cosmetics. These cosmetic ingredients are similar in their chemistry, in particular with respect to the presence of 3,3-dimethylamino-propylamine (DMAPA) and fatty acid amidopropyl dimethylamine (amidoamine) impurities, which are known as sensitizers. The CIR Expert Panel concluded that because these ingredients present no other significant toxicity, when formulated to be nonsensitizing (which may be based on a quantitative risk assessment), these ingredients are safe for use as cosmetic ingredients in the practices of use and concentration of this safety assessment.
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Effect of N'-nitrosodimethylamine on red blood cell rheology and proteomic profiles of brain in male albino rats. Interdiscip Toxicol 2011; 4:125-31. [PMID: 22058653 PMCID: PMC3203914 DOI: 10.2478/v10102-011-0020-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Revised: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the effects of N'-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) induced toxicity on red blood cell rheology in male rats and identified bands in proteomic profiles of brain which can be used as novel markers. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) profiles exhibited constitutive as well as induced expression of the polypeptides. Remarkably, the molecular weight range of the polypeptides (8–150 kDa) corresponded to that of the family of heat shock proteins. Our results revealed significant changes in blood parameters and showed the presence of acanthocytes, tear drop cells, spicules and cobot rings in the treated categories. Lactate dehydrogenase and esterase zymograms displayed a shift to anaerobic metabolism generating hypoxia-like conditions. This study strongly suggests that NDMA treatment causes acute toxicity leading to cell membrane destruction and alters protein profiles in rats. It is therefore recommended that caution should be exercised in using NDMA to avoid risks, and if at all necessary strategies should be designed to combat such conditions.
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Sun Z, Liu YD, Zhong RG. Carbon Dioxide in the Nitrosation of Amine: Catalyst or Inhibitor? J Phys Chem A 2011; 115:7753-64. [DOI: 10.1021/jp202002m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Sun
- College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Dong Liu
- College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, People's Republic of China
| | - Ru Gang Zhong
- College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, People's Republic of China
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12
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Sun Z, Liu YD, Zhong RG. Theoretical Investigation of N-Nitrosodimethylamine Formation from Nitrosation of Trimethylamine. J Phys Chem A 2009; 114:455-65. [DOI: 10.1021/jp9056219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Sun
- College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, R. P. China
| | - Yong Dong Liu
- College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, R. P. China
| | - Ru Gang Zhong
- College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, R. P. China
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Tezel U, Pavlostathis SG. Transformation of benzalkonium chloride under nitrate reducing conditions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2009; 43:1342-1348. [PMID: 19350901 DOI: 10.1021/es802177f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The effect and transformation potential of benzalkonium chlorides (BAC) under nitrate reducing conditions were investigated at concentrations up to 100 mg/L in batch assays using a mixed, mesophilic (35 degrees C) methanogenic culture. Glucose was used as the carbon and energy source and the initial nitrate concentration was 70 mg N/L Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonia (DNRA) and to dinitrogen (DNRN) were observed at BAC concentrations up to 25 mg/L At and above 50 mg BAC/L, DNRA was inhibited and DNRN was incomplete resulting in accumulation of nitrous oxide. Long-term inhibition of methanogenesis and accumulation of volatile fatty acids were observed at and above 50 mg BAC/L Over 99% of the added BAC was recovered from all cultures except the one amended with 100 mg BAC/L where 37% of the initially added BAC was transformed during the 100 day incubation period. Abiotic and biotic assays performed with 100 mg/L of BAC and 5 mM (in the liquid phase) of either nitrate, nitrite, or nitric oxide demonstrated that BAC transformation was abiotic and followed the modified Hofmann degradation pathway, i.e., bimolecular nucleophilic substitution with nitrite. Alkyl dimethyl amines (tertiary amines) were produced at equamolar levels to BAC transformed, but were not further degraded. This is the first report demonstrating the transformation of BAC under nitrate reducing conditions and elucidating the BAC transformation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulas Tezel
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0512, USA
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14
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Abidi SL, Fish US, Service W, Idelson AL. Synthesis of carbon-14 and deuterium labeled N-nitroso-2(3′,7′-dimethyl-2′,6′-octadienyl)aminoethanols. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.2580180817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Mitch WA, Sedlak DL. Characterization and fate of N-nitrosodimethylamine precursors in municipal wastewater treatment plants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2004; 38:1445-54. [PMID: 15046346 DOI: 10.1021/es035025n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The potent carcinogen, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), is produced during disinfection of municipal wastewater effluent from the reaction of monochloramine and organic nitrogen-containing precursors. To delineate the sources and fate of NDMA precursors during municipal wastewater treatment, NDMA formation was measured after extended chloramination of both model precursors and samples from conventional and advanced wastewater treatment plants. Of the model precursors, only dimethylamine, tertiary amines with dimethylamine functional groups, and dimethylamides formed significant NDMA concentrations upon chloramination. In samples from municipal wastewater treatment plants, dissolved NDMA precursors always were present in primary and secondary effluents. Biological treatment effectively removed the known NDMA precursor dimethylamine, lowering its concentration to levels that could not produce significant quantities of NDMA upon chlorine disinfection. However, biological treatment was less effective at removing other dissolved NDMA precursors, even after extended biological treatment. Significant concentrations of particle-associated NDMA precursors only were detected in secondary effluent at treatment plants that recycled water from sludge thickening operations in which dimethylamine-based synthetic polymers were used. Effective strategies for the prevention of NDMA formation during wastewater chlorination include ammonia removal by nitrification to preclude chloramine formation during chlorine disinfection, elimination of dimethylamine-based polymers, and use of filtration and reverse osmosis to remove particle-associated precursors and dissolved precursors, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 609 Davis Hall, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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Mitch WA, Sedlak DL. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2002; 36:588-595. [PMID: 11878371 DOI: 10.1021/es010684q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine disinfection of secondary wastewater effluent and drinking water can result in the production of the potent carcinogen N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) at concentrations of approximately 100 and 10 parts per trillion (ng/L), respectively. Laboratory experiments with potential NDMA precursors indicate that NDMA formation can form during the chlorination of dimethylamine and other secondary amines. The formation of NDMA during chlorination may involve the slow formation of 1,1-dimethylhydrazine by the reaction of monochloramine and dimethylamine followed by its rapid oxidation to NDMA and other products including dimethylcyanamide and dimethylformamide. Other pathways also lead to NDMA formation during chlorination such as the reaction of sodium hypochlorite with dimethylamine. However, the rate of NDMA formation is approximately an order of magnitude slower than that observed when monochloramine reacts with dimethylamine. The reaction exhibits a strong pH dependence due to competing reactions. It may be possible to reduce NDMA formation during chlorination by removing ammonia prior to chlorination, by breakpoint chlorination, or by avoidance of the use of monochloramine for drinking water disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley 94720, USA
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Sawamura M, Sun SH, Ozaki K, Ishikawa J, Ukeda H. Inhibitory effects of citrus essential oils and their components on the formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 1999; 47:4868-4872. [PMID: 10606544 DOI: 10.1021/jf9903206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Twenty-eight kinds of citrus essential oils and their components were studied for inhibitory effects on the formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). The reaction mixture consisted of dimethylamine and sodium nitrite adjusted at pH 3.6, in addition to essential oils and an emulsifying agent. The quantification was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography monitored at 220 nm. All of the essential oils inhibited the formation of NDMA in the range of 20-85%. The oils of ujukitsu (Citrus ujukitsu Hort. ex Shirai), yuzu (C. junos Tanaka), mochiyu (C. inflata Hort. ex Tanaka), and ponkan (C. reticulata Blanco cv. F-2426) inhibited the formation of NDMA much more effectively than other citrus oils. The inhibitory proportions of components of citrus essential oils such as myrcene, alpha-terpinene, and terpinolene were as high as 80%.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sawamura
- Department of Bioresources Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kochi University, B-200 Monobe, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan.
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20
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Alba MA, Espinosa J, Cortinas de Nava C. Mutagenicity of products generated by the reaction between several antiparasitic drugs and nitrite. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 1988; 12:65-73. [PMID: 2968243 DOI: 10.1002/em.2860120109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Drugs containing secondary aliphatic amines, heterocyclic nitrogen, or secondary aliphatic amido groups (chloroquine, dehydroemetine, mebendazole, and piperazine) and pyrimidine derivatives such as pyrantel pamoate were reacted in vitro with sodium nitrite at pH 3.7 and became mutagenic for Salmonella typhimurium strain TA1535. The products derived from the nitrosation of chloroquine and dehydroemetine required metabolic activation by mammalian hepatic S9 to be mutagenic. The N-nitroso derivatives of mebendazole, piperazine, and pyrantel pamoate were mutagenic with and without S9, although more activity was noted in the presence of S9 with the nitrosated compounds formed from mebendazole and piperazine. Under identical conditions, no mutagenic products were detected from quaternary ammonium salts such as bephenium hydroxynaphthoate or drugs containing tertiary heterocyclic amino groups, such as iodochlorhydroxyquin.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Alba
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México
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Abstract
Animals dosed orally with nitrite (1.5 X 10(-3) mol/kg) and nonyl dimethylbenzylammonium bromide (2.9 X 10(-4) mol/kg) exhibit liver damage within two hours; cetyl trimethylammonium bromide plus nitrite was not significantly hepatotoxic. Both nonyl dimethylbenzyl ammonium bromide and cetyl trimethylammonium bromide were demethylated by rat-liver microsomal preparations; substrate concentrations of 1 mM or more were inhibitory. Bile from rats given i.p. doses of cetyl trimethylammonium bromide, nonyl dimethylbenzylammonium bromide or dodecyl dimethylbenzylammonium bromide contains only metabolites, no unchanged compounds were detected.
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Hardwick WA, Hickman DH, Jangaard NO, Ladish WJ, Meilgaard MC. N-nitrosodimethylamine in malt beverages--anticipatory action by the brewing industry. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 1982; 2:38-66. [PMID: 7186160 DOI: 10.1016/0273-2300(82)90031-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Dressel J. [A gas-chromatographic method for the determination of volatile nitrosamines in plant material and soil (author's transl)]. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR LEBENSMITTEL-UNTERSUCHUNG UND -FORSCHUNG 1977; 163:11-3. [PMID: 835339 DOI: 10.1007/bf01123548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A method is described which enables low molecular nitrosamines to be determined in plant material and mineral soils. The principle of this method is based on the steam volatility of these nitrosamines by means of which they can be isolated. Their detection and quantiative determination is then carried out by gas chromatography. The limit of detection in this method is 4 to 8 ppb fresh plant material or soil, the possible sample weigth in each case being decisive. The various species of plants or soils have no influence.
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Über Zusammenhänge von Nitrat-Nitrit-Nitrosaminen in pflanzlichem Material Und im Boden. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1976. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02590313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Crosby NT, Sawyer R. N-Nitrosamines: a review of chemical and biological properties and their estimation in foodstuffs. ADVANCES IN FOOD RESEARCH 1976; 22:1-71. [PMID: 790904 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2628(08)60336-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Wogan GN, Tannenbaum SR. Environmental N-nitroso compounds: implications for public health. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1975; 31:375-83. [PMID: 1096368 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(75)90259-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Mirvish SS. Formation of N-nitroso compounds: chemistry, kinetics, and in vivo occurrence. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1975; 31:325-51. [PMID: 238307 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(75)90255-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 452] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Thacker L, Brooks JB. In vitro production of N-nitrosodimethylamine and other amines by proteus species. Infect Immun 1974; 9:648-53. [PMID: 4595755 PMCID: PMC414859 DOI: 10.1128/iai.9.4.648-653.1974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
N-nitrosodimethylamine, a potent carcinogen, was produced by three strains each of Proteus mirabilis, P. morganii, and P. rettgeri, but not by three strains of P. vulgaris grown under the same conditions. Many of the alkaline-extractable volatile metabolites elaborated by these organisms are the same, but there are some qualitative and quantitative differences among species. Representative gas-liquid chromatographic profiles of the four species are presented, and the significance of the differences is discussed. Primary emphasis, however, is given to the importance of the production of N-nitrosodimethylamine by these microorganisms and the conditions under which it is produced.
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Borland R, Hard GC. Early appearance of "transformed" cells from the kidneys of rats treated with a "single" carcinogenic dose of dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) detected by culture in vitro. Eur J Cancer 1974; 10:177-84. [PMID: 4426328 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2964(74)90151-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Sen NP, Miles WF, Donaldson B, Panalaks T, Iyengar JR. Letter: formation of nitrosamines in a meat curing mixture. Nature 1973; 245:104-5. [PMID: 4582759 DOI: 10.1038/245104a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Woolford G, Casselden RJ, Walters CL. Gaseous products of the interaction of sodium nitrite with procine skeletal muscle. Biochem J 1972; 130:82P-83P. [PMID: 4664608 PMCID: PMC1174485 DOI: 10.1042/bj1300082pb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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