Activation of TLR4 signaling promotes gastric cancer progression by inducing mitochondrial ROS production

Propofol-induced hippocampal Neurotoxicity: A mitochondrial perspective

Propofol is a frequently used anesthetic. It can induce neurodegeneration and inhibit neurogenesis in the hippocampus. This effect may be temporary. It can, however, become permanent in vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, who are more susceptible to Alzheimer's disease, and neonates and children, whose brains are still developing and require neurogenesis. Current clinical practice strategies have failed to provide an effective solution to this problem. In addition, the molecular mechanism of this toxicity is not fully understood. Recent advances in molecular research have revealed that apoptosis, in close association with mitochondria, is a crucial mechanism through which propofol contributes to hippocampal toxicity. Preventing the toxicity of propofol on the hippocampus has shown promise in in-vivo, in-vitro, and to a lesser extent human studies. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive literature review of the effects of propofol toxicity on the hippocampus via mitochondria and to suggest translational suggestions based on these molecular results.

Clinicopathological Significance and Prognostic Role of High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1), Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4 in Breast Cancer

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) functions as damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMPs), released into extracellular space during cellular stress. Extracellular HMGB1 act as signal molecules through Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 or TLR4, exerting diverse functions in both normal cells and malignant cells including breast cancer. However, their comprehensive examination in breast cancer tissues is lacking. Thus, we immunolocalized them in 112 breast cancer tissues, correlating their immunoreactivity with clinicopathological parameters and clinical outcomes to clarify their significance in breast cancer. We demonstrated that nuclear HMGB1 immunoreactivity was correlated with tumor progression and longer disease-free survival. In contrast, TLR2 immunoreactivity was correlated with increased cell proliferation and shorter disease-free survival, dependent on cytoplasmic HMGB1 immunoreactivity. Additionally, TLR4 immunoreactivity correlated with chemoresistance, regardless of cytoplasmic HMGB1 immunoreactivity. It was therefore considered that TLR2 collaboratively contributed to breast cancer progression with HMGB1-DAMPs to become a worse prognostic factor. Meanwhile, TLR4 served as a worse prognostic factor associated with chemoresistance, irrespective of HMGB1.

Taenia solium excretory secretory proteins (ESPs) suppresses TLR4/AKT mediated ROS formation in human macrophages via hsa-miR-125

BACKGROUND

Helminth infections are a global health menace affecting 24% of the world population. They continue to increase global disease burden as their unclear pathology imposes serious challenges to patient management. Neurocysticercosis is classified as neglected tropical disease and is caused by larvae of helminthic cestode Taenia solium. The larvae infect humans and localize in central nervous system and cause NCC; a leading etiological agent of acquired epilepsy in the developing world. The parasite has an intricate antigenic make-up and causes active immune suppression in the residing host. It communicates with the host via its secretome which is complex mixture of proteins also called excretory secretory products (ESPs). Understanding the ESPs interaction with host can identify therapeutic intervention hot spots. In our research, we studied the effect of T. solium ESPs on human macrophages and investigated the post-translation switch involved in its immunopathogenesis.

METHODOLOGY

T. solium cysts were cultured in vitro to get ESPs and used for treating human macrophages. These macrophages were studied for cellular signaling and miR expression and quantification at transcript and protein level.

CONCLUSION

We found that T. solium cyst ESPs treatment to human macrophages leads to activation of Th2 immune response. A complex cytokine expression by macrophages was also observed with both Th1 and Th2 cytokines in milieu. But, at the same time ESPs modulated the macrophage function by altering the host miR expression as seen with altered ROS activity, apoptosis and phagocytosis. This leads to activated yet compromised functional macrophages, which provides a niche to support parasite survival. Thus T. solium secretome induces Th2 phenomenon in macrophages which may promote parasite's survival and delay their recognition by host immune system.

Unraveling Immunological Dynamics: HPV Infection in Women-Insights from Pregnancy

During pregnancy, hormonal and immune adaptations are vital for supporting the genetically distinct fetus during elevated infection risks. The global prevalence of HPV necessitates its consideration during pregnancy. Despite a seemingly mild immune response, historical gestational viral infections underscore its significance. Acknowledging the established HPV infection risks during pregnancy, our review explores the unfolding immunological changes in pregnant women with HPV. Our analysis aims to uncover strategies for safely modulating the immune system, mitigating adverse pregnancy consequences, and enhancing maternal and child health. This comprehensive narrative review delves into the existing knowledge and studies on this topic.

Toll-like receptors 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 in gastric cancer

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are expressed on both immune cells and tumor cells, triggering both anti-tumor and pro-tumor responses. Therefore, TLRs have potential as prognostic biomarkers and immunotherapeutic targets. The aim of this study was to investigate TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, and TLR6 expression and association with clinicopathological variables and survival in gastric cancer. Immunohistochemical study on cancer specimens from 564 resected gastric cancer patients was performed using tissue microarrays. The association between patient survival and TLR expression was calculated with Cox regression adjusted for confounding factors. Patients with high cytoplasmic TLR2 expression had significantly poorer 5-year survival than the low cytoplasmic TLR2 expression group in multivariate analysis (adjusted HR 1.38, 95% CI 1.11-1.71), and this estimate was similar in intestinal type (adjusted HR 1.33, 95% CI 0.98-1.80) and diffuse type (adjusted HR 1.48, 95% CI 1.06-2.05) histology subgroups. Patients with high cytoplasmic TLR6 expression group had significantly better 5-year survival compared with low cytoplasmic TLR6 expression group in multivariate analysis (adjusted HR 0.74, 95% CI 0.60-0.91). In the subgroup analysis of diffuse type of histology, the 5-year survival was better in high cytoplasmic TLR6 expression group in multivariable analysis (HR 0.62, 95% CI 0.46-0.83). In the intestinal type of histology subgroup, no significant differences between the groups were present. TLR1, TLR4, and TLR5 expression were not associated with 5-year survival. In conclusion, cytoplasmic TLR2 and TLR6 expression seem to have independent prognostic impact in gastric cancer, while TLR1, TLR4, and TLR5 do not.

Mitochondrial Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns and Metabolism in the Regulation of Innate Immunity

The innate immune system, as the host's first line of defense against intruders, plays a critical role in recognizing, identifying, and reacting to a wide range of microbial intruders. There is increasing evidence that mitochondrial stress is a major initiator of innate immune responses. When mitochondria's integrity is disrupted or dysfunction occurs, the mitochondria's contents are released into the cytosol. These contents, like reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial DNA, and double-stranded RNA, among others, act as damage-related molecular patterns (DAMPs) that can bind to multiple innate immune sensors, particularly pattern recognition receptors, thereby leading to inflammation. To avoid the production of DAMPs, in addition to safeguarding organelles integrity and functionality, mitochondria may activate mitophagy or apoptosis. Moreover, mitochondrial components and specific metabolic regulations modify properties of innate immune cells. These include macrophages, dendritic cells, innate lymphoid cells, and so on, in steady state or in stimulation that are involved in processes ranging from the tricarboxylic acid cycle to oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid metabolism. Here we provide a brief summary of mitochondrial DAMPs' initiated and potentiated inflammatory response in the innate immune system. We also provide insights into how the state of activation, differentiation, and functional polarization of innate immune cells can be influenced by alteration to the metabolic pathways in mitochondria.

TLR4 inhibited autophagy by modulating PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in Gastric cancer cell lines

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors found on both immune and cancerous cells. Gastric cancer (GC) cells/tissues have been shown to exhibit elevated levels of TLR4. Here, we examined the role of TLR4 on autophagy and proliferation in GC cells. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot (WB) were used to determine TLR4 levels at different stages of GC cells/tissues as well as the levels of autophagy-related proteins (ARPs) and determine the underlying signaling mechanism. Proliferation was assessed via the CCK-8 assay. The protein and mRNA levels of ARPs were elucidated, followed by estimating the involved signaling pathways. Our results demonstrated that the modulation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway resulted from autophagy inhibition/induction, which was induced by the overexpression and knockdown of TLR4. Thus, TLR4 played a vital role in GC progression.

Interaction of Pexiganan (MSI-78)-Derived Analogues Reduces Inflammation and TLR4-Mediated Cytokine Secretion: A Comparative Study

Antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections have increased the prevalence of sepsis and septic shock mortality worldwide and have become a global concern. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) show remarkable properties for developing new antimicrobial agents and host response modulatory therapies. A new series of AMPs derived from pexiganan (MSI-78) were synthesized. The positively charged amino acids were segregated at their N- and C-termini, and the rest of the amino acids created a hydrophobic core surrounded by positive charges and were modified to simulate the lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The peptides were investigated for their antimicrobial activity and LPS-induced cytokine release inhibition profile. Various biochemical and biophysical methods were used, including attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, microscale thermophoresis (MST), and electron microscopy. Two new AMPs, MSI-Seg-F2F and MSI-N7K, preserved their neutralizing endotoxin activity while reducing toxicity and hemolytic activity. Combining all of these properties makes the designed peptides potential candidates to eradicate bacterial infection and detoxify LPS, which might be useful for sepsis treatment.

Signaling pathways of oxidative stress response: the potential therapeutic targets in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer is one of the top causes of cancer-related death globally. Although novel treatment strategies have been developed, attempts to eradicate gastric cancer have been proven insufficient. Oxidative stress is continually produced and continually present in the human body. Increasing evidences show that oxidative stress contributes significantly to the development of gastric cancer, either through initiation, promotion, and progression of cancer cells or causing cell death. As a result, the purpose of this article is to review the role of oxidative stress response and the subsequent signaling pathways as well as potential oxidative stress-related therapeutic targets in gastric cancer. Understanding the pathophysiology of gastric cancer and developing new therapies for gastric cancer depends on more researches focusing on the potential contributors to oxidative stress and gastric carcinogenesis.

Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Astaxanthin on Gastrointestinal Diseases

A moderate amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is produced under normal conditions, where they play an important role in cell signaling and are involved in many aspects of the immune response to pathogens. On the other hand, the excessive production of ROS destructs macromolecules, cell membranes, and DNA, and activates pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, which may lead to various pathologic conditions. Gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa is constantly exposed to ROS due to the presence of bacteria and other infectious pathogens in food, as well as alcohol consumption, smoking, and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). Prolonged excessive oxidative stress and inflammation are two major risk factors for GI disorders such as ulcers and cancers. Bioactive food compounds with potent anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity have been tested in experimental GI disease models to evaluate their therapeutic potential. Astaxanthin (AST) is a fat-soluble xanthophyll carotenoid that is naturally present in algae, yeast, salmon, shrimp, and krill. It has been shown that AST exhibits protective effects against GI diseases via multiple mechanisms. Residing at the surface and inside of cell membranes, AST directly neutralizes ROS and lipid peroxyl radicals, enhances the activity of anti-oxidant enzymes, and suppresses pro-inflammatory transcription factors and cytokines. In addition, AST has been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth and metastasis via modulating cell proliferation-related pathways, apoptosis, and autophagy. Considering the potential benefits of AST in GI diseases, this review paper aims to summarize recent advances in AST research, focusing on its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects against gastric and intestinal ulcers and cancers.

TLR4 Blockade Using Docosahexaenoic Acid Restores Vulnerability of Drug-Tolerant Tumor Cells and Prevents Breast Cancer Metastasis and Postsurgical Relapse

Nonmutational mechanisms were recently discovered leading to reversible drug tolerance. Despite the rapid elimination of a majority of tumor cells, a small subpopulation of "'drug-tolerant"' cells remain viable with lethal drug exposure, which may further lead to resistance or tumor relapse. Several signaling pathways are involved in the local or systemic inflammatory responses contributing to drug-induced phenotypic switch. Here, we report that Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-interacting lipid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) restores the cytotoxic effect of doxorubicin (DOX) in the lipopolysaccharide-treated breast tumor cell line 4T1, preventing the phenotypic switch to drug-tolerant cells, which significantly reduces primary tumor growth and lung metastasis in both 4T1 orthotopic and experimental metastasis models. Importantly, DHA in combination with DOX delays and inhibits tumor recurrence following surgical removal of the primary tumor. Furthermore, the coencapsulation of DHA and DOX in a nanoemulsion significantly prolongs the survival of mice in the postsurgical 4T1 tumor relapse model with significantly reduced systemic toxicity. The synergistic antitumor, antimetastasis, and antirecurrence effects of DHA + DOX combination are likely mediated by attenuating TLR4 activation, thus sensitizing tumor cells to standard chemotherapy.

Microbial-Derived Toll-like Receptor Agonism in Cancer Treatment and Progression

Simple Summary

Toll like receptors (TLRs) are a group of transmembrane receptors belonging to the class of pattern recognition receptors (PRR), which are involved in recognition of pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), inducing immune response. During the past decade, a number of preclinical and clinical breakthroughs in the field of TLR agonists has immerged in cancer research and some of these agents have performed exceptionally well in clinical trials. Based on evidence from scientific studies, we draw attention to several microbial based TLR agonists and discuss their relevance in various cancer and explore various microbial based TLR agonists for developing effective immunotherapeutic strategies against cancer.

Abstract

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are typical transmembrane proteins, which are essential pattern recognition receptors in mediating the effects of innate immunity. TLRs recognize structurally conserved molecules derived from microbes and damage-associated molecular pattern molecules that play an important role in inflammation. Since the first discovery of the Toll receptor by the team of J. Hoffmann in 1996, in Drosophila melanogaster, numerous TLRs have been identified across a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate species. TLR stimulation leads to NF-κB activation and the subsequent production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, growth factors and anti-apoptotic proteins. The expression of TLRs has also been observed in many tumors, and their stimulation results in tumor progression or regression, depending on the TLR and tumor type. The anti-tumoral effects can result from the activation of anti-tumoral immune responses and/or the direct induction of tumor cell death. The pro-tumoral effects may be due to inducing tumor cell survival and proliferation or by acting on suppressive or inflammatory immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. The aim of this review is to draw attention to the effects of TLR stimulation in cancer, the activation of various TLRs by microbes in different types of tumors, and, finally, the role of TLRs in anti-cancer immunity and tumor rejection.

TLR2 and TLR4 Signaling Pathways and Gastric Cancer: Insights from Transcriptomics and Sample Validation

Background

Pattern recognition receptors, especially toll-like receptors (TLRs), as the first line of defense for pathogen detection, were found to be associated with H.¬ pylori infection and gastric cancer (GC). However, the expression levels of TLRs, i.e. TLR2 and TLR4, as the main receptors sensed by H.¬ pylori, still remain largely ambiguous. We aimed to investigate the patterns of key transcripts of TLR2 and TLR4 in 100 GC transcriptome data. Additionally, we evaluated TLR2 and TLR4 gene expressions in gastric biopsies of Iranian GC patients, in order to validate RNA-seq outputs.

Methods

For this study, 100 runs of GC samples and controls were processed and analyzed using map read to reference. Differential gene expression method was used to distinguish between GC and normal samples in the expression of TLRs and other innate immune molecules. Also, using qRT-PCR assay, transcripts of TLRs molecules for 15 GC and 15 control samples were analyzed based on the analysis of variance and least significant differences.

Results

The results clearly showed that all signaling pathways molecules of TLR4, especially TLR4 (p = 0.019), NF-κB (p ¬= 0.047), IL-1β (p = 0.0096), and TNF-α (p = 0.048), were upregulated in a cancerous condition in different parts and at various stages of GC.

Conclusion

Our findings suggested that molecules involved in inflammation, including TLR4 and its related pro-inflammatory cytokines, may be responsible for the development and progression of GC. Accordingly, the control of H. pylori infection reduces inflammation in the gastric system and can play an important role in preventing gastrointestinal disorders.

Chronic inflammation and long-lasting changes in the gastric mucosa after Helicobacter pylori infection involved in gastric cancer

OBJECTIVE

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infects approximately half of the world's population, as one of the most common chronic infections. H. pylori infection has been widely recognized as a major risk factor for gastric cancer (GC).

METHODS

Eradication treatment is considered to abolish the inflammatory response and prevent progression to GC. However, only 1-3% of H. pylori-infected patients develop GC, whereas GC can occur even after eradicating H. pylori. In addition, the incidence of GC following H. pylori infection is significantly higher compared to the gross incidence induced by all causes, although eradicating H. pylori reduces the risk of developing GC.

RESULTS

Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that H. pylori infection results in changes that persist even after its eradication. Several of these changes may not be reversible within a short time, including the status of inflammation, the dysfunction of immunity and apoptosis, mitochondrial changes, aging and gastric dysbacteriosis.

CONCLUSION

The present review article aimed to discuss these potential long-lasting changes induced by H. pylori infection that may follow the eradication of H. pylori and contribute to the development of GC.

Mechanisms Linking the Gut-Muscle Axis With Muscle Protein Metabolism and Anabolic Resistance: Implications for Older Adults at Risk of Sarcopenia

Aging is associated with a decline in skeletal muscle mass and function-termed sarcopenia-as mediated, in part, by muscle anabolic resistance. This metabolic phenomenon describes the impaired response of muscle protein synthesis (MPS) to the provision of dietary amino acids and practice of resistance-based exercise. Recent observations highlight the gut-muscle axis as a physiological target for combatting anabolic resistance and reducing risk of sarcopenia. Experimental studies, primarily conducted in animal models of aging, suggest a mechanistic link between the gut microbiota and muscle atrophy, mediated via the modulation of systemic amino acid availability and low-grade inflammation that are both physiological factors known to underpin anabolic resistance. Moreover, in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrate the action of specific gut bacteria (Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium) to increase systemic amino acid availability and elicit an anti-inflammatory response in the intestinal lumen. Prospective lifestyle approaches that target the gut-muscle axis have recently been examined in the context of mitigating sarcopenia risk. These approaches include increasing dietary fiber intake that promotes the growth and development of gut bacteria, thus enhancing the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) (acetate, propionate, and butyrate). Prebiotic/probiotic/symbiotic supplementation also generates SCFA and may mitigate low-grade inflammation in older adults via modulation of the gut microbiota. Preliminary evidence also highlights the role of exercise in increasing the production of SCFA. Accordingly, lifestyle approaches that combine diets rich in fiber and probiotic supplementation with exercise training may serve to produce SCFA and increase microbial diversity, and thus may target the gut-muscle axis in mitigating anabolic resistance in older adults. Future mechanistic studies are warranted to establish the direct physiological action of distinct gut microbiota phenotypes on amino acid utilization and the postprandial stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in older adults.

Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori Infection and Recent Advances

BACKGROUND

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infects approximately 50% of the world population. Its infection is associated with gastropathies, extra-gastric digestive diseases, and diseases of other systems. There is a canonical process from acute-on-chronic inflammation, chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG), intestinal metaplasia (IM), dysplasia, and intraepithelial neoplasia, eventually to gastric cancer (GC). H. pylori eradication abolishes the inflammatory response and early treatment prevents the progression to preneoplastic lesions.

METHODS

the test-and-treat strategy, endoscopy-based strategy, and screen-and-treat strategy are recommended to prevent GC based on risk stratification, prevalence, and patients' clinical manifestations and conditions. Challenges contain false-negative results, increasing antibiotic resistance, decreasing eradication rate, and poor retesting rate. Present diagnosis methods are mainly based on invasive endoscopy and noninvasive laboratory testing.

RESULTS

to improve the accuracy and effectiveness and reduce the missed diagnosis, some advances were achieved including newer imaging techniques (such as image-enhanced endoscopy (IEE), artificial intelligence (AI) technology, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and digital PCR (dPCR).

CONCLUSION

in the article, we summarized the diagnosis methods of H. pylori infection and recent advances, further finding out the opportunities in challenges.

A Fibrinogen Alpha Fragment Mitigates Chemotherapy-Induced MLL Rearrangements

Rearrangements in the Mixed Lineage Leukemia breakpoint cluster region (MLLbcr) are frequently involved in therapy-induced leukemia, a severe side effect of anti-cancer therapies. Previous work unraveled Endonuclease G as the critical nuclease causing initial breakage in the MLLbcr in response to different types of chemotherapeutic treatment. To identify peptides protecting against therapy-induced leukemia, we screened a hemofiltrate-derived peptide library by use of an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-based chromosomal reporter of MLLbcr rearrangements. Chromatographic purification of one active fraction and subsequent mass spectrometry allowed to isolate a C-terminal 27-mer of fibrinogen α encompassing amino acids 603 to 629. The chemically synthesized peptide, termed Fα27, inhibited MLLbcr rearrangements in immortalized hematopoietic cells following treatment with the cytostatics etoposide or doxorubicin. We also provide evidence for protection of primary human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells from therapy-induced MLLbcr breakage. Of note, fibrinogen has been described to activate toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Dissecting the Fα27 mode-of action revealed association of the peptide with TLR4 in an antagonistic fashion affecting downstream NFκB signaling and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. In conclusion, we identified a hemofiltrate-derived peptide inhibitor of the genome destabilizing events causing secondary leukemia in patients undergoing chemotherapy.

High fat diet, gut microbiome and gastrointestinal cancer

Gastrointestinal cancer is currently one of the main causes of cancer death, with a large number of cases and a wide range of lesioned sites. A high fat diet, as a public health problem, has been shown to be correlated with various digestive system diseases and tumors, and can accelerate the occurrence of cancer due to inflammation and altered metabolism. The gut microbiome has been the focus of research in recent years, and associated with cell damage or tumor immune microenvironment changes via direct or extra-intestinal effects; this may facilitate the occurrence and development of gastrointestinal tumors. Based on research showing that both a high fat diet and gut microbes can promote the occurrence of gastrointestinal tumors, and that a high fat diet imbalances intestinal microbes, we propose that a high fat diet drives gastrointestinal tumors by changing the composition of intestinal microbes.

Functions of ROS in Macrophages and Antimicrobial Immunity

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a chemically defined group of reactive molecules derived from molecular oxygen. ROS are involved in a plethora of processes in cells in all domains of life, ranging from bacteria, plants and animals, including humans. The importance of ROS for macrophage-mediated immunity is unquestioned. Their functions comprise direct antimicrobial activity against bacteria and parasites as well as redox-regulation of immune signaling and induction of inflammasome activation. However, only a few studies have performed in-depth ROS analyses and even fewer have identified the precise redox-regulated target molecules. In this review, we will give a brief introduction to ROS and their sources in macrophages, summarize the versatile roles of ROS in direct and indirect antimicrobial immune defense, and provide an overview of commonly used ROS probes, scavengers and inhibitors.

Evaluation of Dissolution Profiles of a Newly Developed Solid Oral Immediate-Release Formula Containing Alpha-Lipoic Acid

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA, thioctic acid), a naturally-occurring essential dithiol compound, has become a common ingredient in many pharmaceutical and food supplement products (FSP), used in oxidative stress-dependent pathologies; oral bioavailability of ALA is limited by pharmacokinetic particularities that reduce its therapeutic efficacy-reduced solubility, lack of gastric stability and hepatic degradation, doubled by formulation hinders. The objectives were to develop a solid oral 600 mg ALA FSP to obtain an optimal pharmaceutical profile compared to a reference listed drug (RLD) with a similarity factor f2 50. A comparative dissolution study was performed; an HPLC method was used for ALA quantification. After planning combinatory simulations (formulation stage), two prototype formulas (#1 and #2) were manufactured and further optimized by adjusting ALA physical characteristics and the excipients quantities (#3 and #4) in order to achieve the Quality Target Product Profile. A misshapen of ALA’s in vitro release was observed for #3 Formula (f2 = 31.6); the optimal profile was obtained for Formula #4 (f2 = 58.5). A simple quantitative formula is not enough to assure good ALA bioavailability; the formulation needs multiple compounding modulations under physicochemical compatibility algorithms, with multiple dissolution profiles testing back-ups. It is essential to ensure a formulation with an in vitro dissolution comparable with the RLD, allowing the compound to reach its target level to assure the optimum claimed antioxidant activity of ALA at the cellular level, even for food supplement formulations.

TLRs as a Promise Target Along With Immune Checkpoint Against Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers in the world, and the incidence of gastric cancer in Asia appears to increase in recent years. Although there is a lot of improvement in treatment approaches, the prognosis of GC is poor. So it is urgent to search for a novel and more effective treatment to improve the survival rate of patients. Both innate immunity and adaptive immunity are important in cancer. In the innate immune system, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activate immune responses by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a class of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Many studies have reported that TLRs are involved in the occurrence, development, and treatment of GC. Therefore, TLRs are potential targets for immunotherapy to gastric cancer. However, gastric cancer is a heterogeneous disorder, and TLRs function in GC is complex. TLRs agonists can be potentially used not only as therapeutic agents to treat gastric cancer but also as adjuvants in conjunction with other immunotherapies. They might provide a promising new target for GC treatment. In the review, we sort out the mechanism of TLRs involved in tumor immunity and summarize the current progress in TLRs-based therapeutic approaches and other immunotherapies in the treatment of GC.

Identification and Validation a Necroptosis‑related Prognostic Signature and Associated Regulatory Axis in Stomach Adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) ranks fifth in global cancer incidence and third in cancer-related mortality. The prognosis of GC patients was poor. Necroptosis is a type of regulated cell death mediated by RIP1, RIP3, and MLKL. Necroptosis was found to be involved in antitumor immunity in the cancer immunotherapy.

METHODS

LASSO Cox regression analysis was performed to construct a prognostic signature. Bioinformatics analysis was performed to construct a lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory axis. qRT-PCR was performed to verify the expression and prognosis of hub gene in STAD.

RESULTS

Most of necroptosis regulators were upregulated, while the mRNA level of TLR3, ALDH2, and NDRG2 was downregulated in STAD versus gastric tissues. The genetic mutation and copy number variation of necroptosis regulator in STAD were also summarized. GO and KEGG pathways analysis revealed that these necroptosis regulators were mainly involved in programmed necrotic cell death and TNF signaling pathway. A necroptosis‑related prognostic signature based on four genes (EZH2, PGAM5, TLR4, and TRAF2) had a good performance in predicting the prognosis of STAD patients. We also identified lncRNA SNHG1/miR-21-5p/TLR4 regulatory axis in the progression in STAD. Verification study suggested that the hub gene TLR4 upregulated in STAD and correlated with a poor overall survival. Moreover, Cox regression analysis revealed that TLR4 expression and clinical stage were independent factors affecting the prognosis of STAD patients.

CONCLUSION

We performed a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis and identified a necroptosis‑related prognostic signature and a lncRNA SNHG1/miR-21-5p/TLR4 regulatory axis in STAD. Further study should be performed to confirm our result.

High glucose-ROS conditions enhance the progression in cholangiocarcinoma via upregulation of MAN2A2 and CHD8

Diabetes is a major risk factor in the development and progression of several cancers including cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). However, the molecular mechanism by which hyperglycemia potentiates progression of CCA is not clearly understood. Here, we showed that a high glucose condition significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and promoted aggressive phenotypes of CCA cells, including proliferation and migration activities. Mannosidase alpha class 2a member 2 (MAN2A2), was upregulated at both mRNA and protein levels in a high glucose‐ and ROS‐dependent manner. In addition, cell proliferation and migration were significantly reduced by MAN2A2 knockdown. Based on our proteome and in silico analyses, we further found that chromodomain helicase DNA‐binding protein 8 (CHD8) was induced by ROS signaling and regulated MAN2A2 expression. Overexpression of CHD8 increased MAN2A2 expression, while CHD8 knockdown dramatically reduced proliferation and migration as well as MAN2A2 expression in CCA cells. Moreover, both MAN2A2 and CHD8 were highly expressed with positive correlation in CCA tumor tissues. Collectively, these data suggested that high glucose conditions promote CCA progression through ROS‐mediated upregulation of MAN2A2 and CHD8. Thus, glucose metabolism is a promising therapeutic target to control tumor progression in patients with CCA and diabetes.

Helicobacter pylori-Mediated Immunity and Signaling Transduction in Gastric Cancer

Helicobacter pylori infection is a leading cause of gastric cancer, which is the second-most common cancer-related death in the world. The chronic inflammatory environment in the gastric mucosal epithelia during H. pylori infection stimulates intracellular signaling pathways, namely inflammatory signals, which may lead to the promotion and progression of cancer cells. We herein report two important signal transduction pathways, the LPS-TLR4 and CagA-MET pathways. Upon H. pylori stimulation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binds to toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mainly on macrophages and gastric epithelial cells. This induces an inflammatory response in the gastric epithelia to upregulate transcription factors, such as NF-κB, AP-1, and IRFs, all of which contribute to the initiation and progression of gastric cancer cells. Compared with other bacterial LPSs, H. pylori LPS has a unique function of inhibiting the mononuclear cell (MNC)-based production of IL-12 and IFN-γ. While this mechanism reduces the degree of inflammatory reaction of immune cells, it also promotes the survival of gastric cancer cells. The HGF/SF-MET signaling plays a major role in promoting cellular proliferation, motility, migration, survival, and angiogenesis, all of which are essential factors for cancer progression. H. pylori infection may facilitate MET downstream signaling in gastric cancer cells through its CagA protein via phosphorylation-dependent and/or phosphorylation-independent pathways. Other signaling pathways involved in H. pylori infection include EGFR, FAK, and Wnt/β-Catenin. These pathways function in the inflammatory process of gastric epithelial mucosa, as well as the progression of gastric cancer cells. Thus, H. pylori infection-mediated chronic inflammation plays an important role in the development and progression of gastric cancer.

Pathological and Pharmacological Roles of Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species in Malignant Neoplasms: Therapies Involving Chemical Compounds, Natural Products, and Photosensitizers

Oxidative stress plays an important role in cellular processes. Consequently, oxidative stress also affects etiology, progression, and response to therapeutics in various pathological conditions including malignant tumors. Oxidative stress and associated outcomes are often brought about by excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Accumulation of ROS occurs due to dysregulation of homeostasis in an otherwise strictly controlled physiological condition. In fact, intracellular ROS levels are closely associated with the pathological status and outcome of numerous diseases. Notably, mitochondria are recognized as the critical regulator and primary source of ROS. Damage to mitochondria increases mitochondrial ROS (mROS) production, which leads to an increased level of total intracellular ROS. However, intracellular ROS level may not always reflect mROS levels, as ROS is not only produced by mitochondria but also by other organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum and peroxisomes. Thus, an evaluation of mROS would help us to recognize the biological and pathological characteristics and predictive markers of malignant tumors and develop efficient treatment strategies. In this review, we describe the pathological significance of mROS in malignant neoplasms. In particular, we show the association of mROS-related signaling in the molecular mechanisms of chemically synthesized and natural chemotherapeutic agents and photodynamic therapy.

Micheliolide Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation by Modulating the mROS/NF-κB/NLRP3 Axis in Renal Tubular Epithelial Cells

Chronic kidney disease is a common disease closely related to renal tubular inflammation and oxidative stress, and no effective treatment is available. Activation of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is an important factor in renal inflammation, but the mechanism remains unclear. Micheliolide (MCL), which is derived from parthenolide, is a new compound with antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects and has multiple roles in tumors and inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated the effect of MCL on lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced inflammation in renal tubular cells and the related mechanism. We found that MCL significantly suppressed the LPS-induced NF-κB signaling and inflammatory expression of cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in a rat renal proximal tubular cell line (NRK-52E). MCL also prevented LPS- and adenosine triphosphate-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vitro, as evidenced by the inhibition of NLRP3 expression, caspase-1 cleavage, and interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 maturation and secretion. Additionally, MCL inhibited the reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and decreases the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, MCL can prevent NLRP3 inflammasome activation induced by rotenone, a well-known mitochondrial ROS (mROS) agonist, indicating that the mechanism of MCL's anti-inflammatory effect may be closely related to the mROS. In conclusion, our study indicates that MCL can inhibit LPS-induced renal inflammation through suppressing the mROS/NF-κB/NLRP3 axis in tubular epithelial cells.

Activation of TNFR1 and TLR4 following oxygen glucose deprivation promotes mitochondrial fission in C6 astroglial cells

Astrocytes have emerged as active players in the innate immune response triggered by various types of insults. Recent literature suggests that mitochondria are key participants in innate immunity. The present study investigates the role of ischemia-induced innate immune response on p65/PGC-1α mediated mitochondrial dynamics in C6 astroglial cells. OGD conditions induced astroglial differentiation in C6 cells and increased the expression of hypoxia markers; HIF-1α, HO-1 and Cox4i2. OGD conditions resulted in induction of innate immune response in terms of expression of TNFR1 and TLR4 along with increase in IL-6 and TNF-α levels. OGD conditions resulted in decreased expression of I-κB with a concomitant increase in phos-p65 levels. The expression of PGC-1α, a key regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, was also increased. Immunochemical staining suggested that phos-p65 and PGC-1α was co-localized. Studies on mitochondrial fusion (Mfn-1) and fission (DRP1) markers revealed shift toward fission. In addition, mitochondrial membrane potential decreased with increased DNA degradation and apoptosis confirming mitochondrial fission under OGD conditions. However, inhibition of phos-p65 by MG132 reduced the co-localization of phos-p65/ PGC-1α and significantly increased the Mfn-1 expression. The findings demonstrate the involvement of TNFR1 and TLR4 mediated immune response followed by interaction between phos-p65 and PGC-1α in promoting fission in C6 cells under hypoxic condition.

Innate Immune Defense Mechanisms by Myeloid Cells That Hamper Cancer Immunotherapy

Over the past decade, cancer immunotherapy has been steering immune responses toward cancer cell eradication. However, these immunotherapeutic approaches are hampered by the tumor-promoting nature of myeloid cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. Despite the arsenal of defense strategies against foreign invaders, myeloid cells succumb to the instructions of an established tumor. Interestingly, the most primordial defense responses employed by myeloid cells against pathogens, such as complement activation, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity and phagocytosis, actually seem to favor cancer progression. In this review, we discuss how rudimentary defense mechanisms deployed by myeloid cells can promote tumor progression.

Epithelial Toll-like receptors and their role in gut homeostasis and disease

The human gastrointestinal tract is colonized by trillions of microorganisms that interact with the host to maintain structural and functional homeostasis. Acting as the interface between the site of the highest microbial burden in the human body and the richest immune compartment, a single layer of intestinal epithelial cells specializes in nutrient absorption, stratifies microorganisms to limit colonization of tissues and shapes the responses of the subepithelial immune cells. In this Review, we focus on the expression, regulation and functions of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the different intestinal epithelial lineages to analyse how epithelial recognition of bacteria participates in establishing homeostasis in the gut. In particular, we elaborate on the involvement of epithelial TLR signalling in controlling crypt dynamics, enhancing epithelial barrier integrity and promoting immune tolerance towards the gut microbiota. Furthermore, we comment on the regulatory mechanisms that fine-tune TLR-driven immune responses towards pathogens and revisit the role of TLRs in epithelial repair after injury. Finally, we discuss how dysregulation of epithelial TLRs can lead to the generation of dysbiosis, thereby increasing susceptibility to colitis and tumorigenesis.

Toll-like Receptors from the Perspective of Cancer Treatment

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) represent a family of pattern recognition receptors that recognize certain pathogen-associated molecular patterns and damage-associated molecular patterns. TLRs are highly interesting to researchers including immunologists because of the involvement in various diseases including cancers, allergies, autoimmunity, infections, and inflammation. After ligand engagement, TLRs trigger multiple signaling pathways involving nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), interferon-regulatory factors (IRFs), and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) for the production of various cytokines that play an important role in diseases like cancer. TLR activation in immune as well as cancer cells may prevent the formation and growth of a tumor. Nonetheless, under certain conditions, either hyperactivation or hypoactivation of TLRs supports the survival and metastasis of a tumor. Therefore, the design of TLR-targeting agonists as well as antagonists is a promising immunotherapeutic approach to cancer. In this review, we mainly describe TLRs, their involvement in cancer, and their promising properties for anticancer drug discovery.

MG53 attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity and neuroinflammation via inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB pathway in vitro and in vivo

Neuroinflammation plays important roles in the pathogenesis and development of neurodegenerative disorders. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces neuroinflammation and causes neurotoxicity, which results in cell damage or memory impairment in different cells and animals. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of MG53, a member of the TRIM family proteins, against LPS-induced neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. MG53 significantly protected HT22 cells against LPS-induced cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest by inhibiting TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β expression. In addition, MG53 ameliorated LPS-induced memory impairment and neuronal cell death in mice. Interestingly, MG53 significantly promoted newborn cell survival, improved neurogenesis, and mitigated neuroinflammation evidenced by lower production of IL-1β and IL-6, less activation of microglia in the hippocampus of LPS treated mice. Further studies demonstrated that MG53 significantly inhibited TLR4 expression and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) phosphorylation in LPS treated HT22 cells and mice. Taken together, our results suggested that MG53 attenuated LPS-induced neurotoxicity and neuroinflammation partly by inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB pathway in vitro and in vivo.

18β-glycyrrhetinic acid inhibited mitochondrial energy metabolism and gastric carcinogenesis through methylation-regulated TLR2 signaling pathway

The natural phenolic substance, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (GRA), has shown enormous potential in the chemoprevention of cancers with rich resources and biological safety, but the GRA-regulated genetic and epigenetic profiles are unclear. Deregulated mitochondrial cellular energetics supporting higher adenosine triphosphate provisions relative to the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells is a cancer hallmark. The Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling pathway has emerged as a key molecular component in gastric cancer (GC) cell proliferation and epithelial homeostasis. However, whether TLR2 influenced GC cell energy metabolism and whether the inhibition effects of GRA on GC relied on TLR2 signaling were not illustrated. In the present study, TLR2 mRNA and protein expression levels were elevated in gastric tumors in the K19-Wnt1/C2mE (Gan) mice model, GC cell lines and human GCs, and the overexpression of TLR2 was correlated with the high histological grade and was a poor prognostic factor in GC patients. Further gain and loss of function showed that TLR2 activation induced GC cell proliferation and promoted reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, Ca2+ accumulation, oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain, while blocking TLR2 inhibited mitochondrial function and energy metabolism. Furthermore, GRA pretreatment inhibited TLR2-activated GC cell proliferation, energy metabolism and carcinogenesis. In addition, expression of TLR2 was found to be downregulated by GRA through methylation regulation. Collectively, the results demonstrated that GRA inhibited gastric tumorigenesis through TLR2-accelerated energy metabolism, suggesting GRA as a promising therapeutic agency targeting TLR2 signaling in GC.

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Cancer Preventive and Therapeutic Potential of Algal Polysaccharides

Background:

Algal polysaccharide and oligosaccharide derivatives have been shown to possess a variety of therapeutic potentials and drug delivery applications. Algal polysaccharides contain sulfated sugar monomers derived from seaweed including brown, red, and green microalgae. Here, in this review, the recent progress of algal polysaccharides’ therapeutic applications as anticancer agents, as well as underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms was investigated. Moreover, recent progress in the structural chemistry of important polysaccharides with anticancer activities were illustrated.

Methods:

Electronic databases including “Scopus”, “PubMed”, and “Cochrane library” were searched using the keywords “cancer”, or “tumor”, or “malignancy” in title/abstract, along with “algae”, or “algal” in the whole text until July 2018. Only English language papers were included.

Results:

The most common polysaccharides involved in cancer management were sulfated polysaccharides, Fucoidans, Carageenans, and Ulvan from different species of algae that have been recognized in vitro and in vivo. The underlying anticancer mechanisms of algal polysaccharides included induction of apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, modulation of transduction signaling pathways, suppression of migration and angiogenesis, as well as activation of immune responses and antioxidant system. VEGF/VEGFR2, TGFR/Smad/Snail, TLR4/ROS/ER, CXCL12/ CXCR4, TGFR/Smad7/Smurf2, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, PBK/TOPK, and β-catenin/Wnt are among the main cellular signaling pathways which have a key role in the preventive and therapeutic effects of algal polysaccharides against oncogenesis.

Conclusion:

Algal polysaccharides play a crucial role in the management of cancer and may be considered the next frontier in pharmaceutical research. Further well-designed clinical trials are mandatory to evaluate the efficacy and safety of algal polysaccharides in patients with cancer.

Lipopolysaccharide-induced DNA damage response activates nuclear factor κB signalling pathway via GATA4 in dental pulp cells

AIM

To investigate the role of GATA-binding protein 4 (GATA4) in the inflammatory response induced by DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in human dental pulp cells (hDPCs).

METHODOLOGY

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used for stimulating inflammation in dental pulp tissue in vivo and hDPCs in vitro. Expression levels of GATA4 and γ-H2A.X (a marker for DSBs) were detected at different stages of pulpitis in a rat model and human pulp tissues by immunohistochemistry. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blot were performed to assess expression of GATA4 and γ-H2A.X and the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in hDPCs stimulated by LPS. The comet assay was used for detecting the extent of DSBs in hDPCs. Immunocytochemistry and Western blot were utilized to evaluate expression of γ-H2A.X and GATA4 and activation of NF-κB in hDPCs pre-treated with inhibitors of DNA damage response or transfected with GATA4 small interfering RNA before the treatment of LPS. Data were analysed statistically using one-way anova or Kruskal-Wallis tests.

RESULTS

The expression of GATA4 and activation of DNA damage response and NF-κB in inflamed pulp tissue and LPS-treated hDPCs were identified. Significantly decreased expression of GATA4 and significantly decreased inflammatory processes in hDPCs were demonstrated via suppression of DNA damage response (P < 0.05). In GATA4-knockdown cells, the expression of γ-H2A.X did not change, but nuclear translocation of p65 was significantly suppressed (P < 0.05) upon induction by LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

Lipopolysaccharide-induced DSBs activated the NF-κB signalling pathway in hDPCs, and GATA4 acts as a positive moderator of the progress. The involvement of GATA4 in this pathology may serve as a therapeutic target in pulpitis.

The contribution of miR-122 to the innate immunity by regulating toll-like receptor 4 in hepatoma cells

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a kind of malignancies to impact human health. It has been reported that aberrant toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling may contribute to the development and progression of HCC, especially TLR4. MiR-122, which extensively involved in hepatitis virus infection and the apoptosis of hepatoma cells, might be decreased in HCC patients livers. The hypothesis of this study was whether miR-122 plays a role in inflammatory pathways through regulating TLR4 expression in hepatoma cells.

METHODS

The expression of miR-122 in the tissues of HCC patients compared to controls in TCGA datasets was analyzed. The relationship between miR-122 and TLR4 was detected in HCC cell lines by increasing/decreasing miR-122 expression. The target of miR-122 on TLR4 was confirmed by luciferase reporter assays. The proliferation of HCC cells and production of proinflammatory cytokines were measured with miR-122 upregulation and inhibition.

RESULTS

We found that the expression of miR-122 was decreased in HCC tissues and showed the diagnostic capacity for HCC in TCGA datasets. MiR-122 and TLR4 expression have negative correlation in normal liver cells and HCC cells. Upregulation of miR-122 significantly inhibited TLR4 expression in hepatoma cells, including in hepatoma cells with the induction of LPS, while knocking down miR-122 increased TLR4 expression. By screening potential miR-122 targets among TLR4, we found that there was a putative miR-122 target in TLR4 3'UTR. Mutations in the nt1603-nt1609 region of TLR4 3'UTR abandoned the impact of miR-122 on TLR4 expression. Over-expression/down-expression of miR-122 could influence the proliferation and the expression of natural immune factors.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-122 might target TLR4 and regulate host innate immunity in hepatoma cells, which revealed a new molecular mechanism of miR-122 on the regulation of innate immunity.

L-Arginine Inhibited Inflammatory Response and Oxidative Stress Induced by Lipopolysaccharide via Arginase-1 Signaling in IPEC-J2 Cells

This study aimed to explore the effect of L-arginine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response and oxidative stress in IPEC-2 cells. We found that the expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), nuclear factor-kappaBp65 (NF-κBp65), chemokine-8 (IL-8), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and chemokine-6 (IL-6) mRNA were significantly increased by LPS. Exposure to LPS induced oxidative stress as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malonaldehyde (MDA) production were increased while glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) were decreased in LPS-treated cells compared to those in the control. LPS administration also effectively induced cell growth inhibition through induction of G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. However, compared with the LPS group, cells co-treatment with L-arginine effectively increased cell viability and promoted the cell cycle into the S phase; L-arginine exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect in alleviating inflammation induced by LPS by reducing the abundance of TLR4, MyD88, CD14, NF-κBp65, and IL-8 transcripts. Cells treated with LPS+L-arginine significantly enhanced the content of GSH-Px, while they decreased the production of ROS and MDA compared with the LPS group. Furthermore, L-arginine increased the activity of arginase-1 (Arg-1), while Arg-1 inhibitor abolished the protection of arginine against LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. Taken together, these results suggested that L-arginine exerted its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects to protect IPEC-J2 cells from inflammatory response and oxidative stress challenged by LPS at least partly via the Arg-1 signaling pathway.

TLR4 Polymorphisms and Expression in Solid Cancers

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a type of pattern-recognition receptor (PRR) that are part of the innate immune system known to recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and thereby play a crucial role in host immune response. Among the various known TLRs, TLR4 is one of the most extensively studied PRRs expressed by immune, certain nonimmune, and tumor cells. When TLR4 binds with the bacterial lipopolysaccharide, it induces production of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and effector molecules as part of the immune response. Continuous exposure to pathogens and TLR4 signaling results in chronic inflammation that may further lead to malignant transformation. TLR4 is a highly polymorphic gene, and genetic variations are known to influence host immune response, leading to dysregulation of signaling pathway, which may affect an individual's susceptibility to various diseases, including cancer. Furthermore, TLR4 expression in different tumor types may also serve as a marker for tumor proliferation, differentiation, metastasis, prognosis, and patient survival. This review aims to summarize various reports related to TLR4 polymorphisms and expression patterns and their influences on different cancer types with a special focus on solid tumors.

The impact of carbonylated proteins on the skin and potential agents to block their effects

Carbonylated proteins (CPs) are synthesized by reactions between amino groups in proteins and reactive aldehyde compounds (RAC) yielded from lipid peroxidation initiated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the skin, CPs are detected in a higher frequency at sun-exposed sites of the skin in elderly subjects. Since CPs in the stratum corneum (SC) have been reported to correlate with skin water content and transepidermal water loss, it is considered that the accumulation of CPs in the SC involves the loss of skin moisture functions. However, the roles of CPs in the dermis on skin physiology are still unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the roles of CPs in the dermis during the progression of photoaged skin and to propose a method to prevent or reduce the synthesis of CPs. The exposure of human normal dermal fibroblasts to CPs increased intracellular ROS levels and the synthesis of intracellular CPs. In addition, CPs caused morphological changes of fibroblasts. Furthermore, CPs caused alterations of mRNA expression levels of dermal matrix-related proteins, such as upregulating MMP-1 and IL-8. These results indicated that CPs disrupt construction of the dermal matrix. On the other hand, α-tocopherol and β-carotene suppressed the synthesis of RAC during lipid peroxidation which resulted in the reduction of UVA-induced CPs in the SC. From these results, we propose that extracellular CPs increase intracellular ROS levels and contribute to alterations of the dermal matrix. To prevent the synthesis of CPs, the application of α-tocopherol or β-carotene could be effective.

Size-dependent cellular uptake and TLR4 attenuation by gold nanoparticles in lung adenocarcinoma cells

AIM

To elucidate uptake mechanisms and immunomodulatory potential of differently sized gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) to enable their use as an adjunct therapy for treating inflammation-linked lung cancer.

METHODS

Internalization of the synthesized (5, 15 and 30 nm) GNPs by various endocytosis pathways was determined. Immunomodulatory mechanisms induced by differently sized GNPs in A549 cells in the presence of TLR4 and TLR9 ligands were evaluated.

RESULTS

GNPs were size-dependently internalized efficiently by A549 cells. Various sized GNPs downregulated the expression of proinflammatory signaling molecules (5 nm most potent). Mechanistically, 5-nm GNPs attenuated TLR4 signaling by downregulating TLR4 expression in A549 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests the use of immunomodulatory GNPs as an adjunct therapy against inflammation-linked lung cancer.

Inflammation and pancreatic cancer: An updated review

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating disease with poor prognosis in the modern era. Inflammatory processes have emerged as key mediators of pancreatic cancer development and progression. Recently, studies have been carried out to investigate the underlying mechanisms that contribute to tumorigenesis induced by inflammation. In this review, the role of inflammation in the initiation and progression of pancreatic cancer is discussed.

Excessive mitochondrial fragmentation triggered by erlotinib promotes pancreatic cancer PANC-1 cell apoptosis via activating the mROS-HtrA2/Omi pathways

Background

Mitochondrial fragmentation drastically regulates the viability of pancreatic cancer through a poorly understood mechanism. The present study used erlotinib to activate mitochondrial fragmentation and then investigated the downstream events that occurred in response to mitochondrial fragmentation.

Methods

Cell viability and apoptosis were determined via MTT assay, TUNEL staining and ELISA. Mitochondrial fragmentation was measured via an immunofluorescence assay and qPCR. siRNA transfection and pathway blockers were used to perform the loss-of-function assays.

Results

The results of our study demonstrated that erlotinib treatment mediated cell apoptosis in the PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cell line via evoking mitochondrial fragmentation. Mechanistically, erlotinib application increased mitochondrial fission and reduced mitochondrial fusion, triggering mitochondrial fragmentation. Subsequently, mitochondrial fragmentation caused the overproduction of mitochondrial ROS (mROS). Interestingly, excessive mROS induced cardiolipin oxidation and mPTP opening, finally facilitating HtrA2/Omi liberation from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, where HtrA2/Omi activated caspase-9-dependent cell apoptosis. Notably, neutralization of mROS or knockdown of HtrA2/Omi attenuated erlotinib-mediated mitochondrial fragmentation and favored cancer cell survival.

Conclusions

Together, our results identified the mROS-HtrA2/Omi axis as a novel signaling pathway that is activated by mitochondrial fragmentation and that promotes PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cell mitochondrial apoptosis in the presence of erlotinib.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12935-018-0665-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

NADPH oxidase 4 regulates anoikis resistance of gastric cancer cells through the generation of reactive oxygen species and the induction of EGFR

Anoikis is a type of programmed cell death induced by detachment from the extracellular matrix. In cancer cells, anoikis resistance is essential for cancer cell survival in blood circulation and distant metastasis. However, the mechanisms behind anoikis resistance of gastric cancer remain largely unknown. Herein, we demonstrate that NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) expression and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation are upregulated in suspension gastric cell cultures compared with adherent cultures. Silencing of NOX4 decreases ROS generation and downregulates EGFR, sensitizing cells to anoikis. NOX4 overexpression upregulates ROS and EGFR levels and promotes anoikis resistance. NOX4 depletion inhibits gastric cancer survival in blood circulation and attenuates distant metastasis. NOX4 expression is correlated with EGFR expression in patients. In conclusion, induction of NOX4 expression by detachment promotes anoikis resistance of gastric cancer through ROS generation and downstream upregulation of EGFR, which is critical for the metastatic progression of gastric cancer.

Decreased RIG-I expression is associated with poor prognosis and promotes cell invasion in human gastric cancer

Background

Retinoic acid-induced protein I (RIG-I), known as a cytoplastic pattern recognition receptor, can recognize exogenous viral RNAs, and then initiate immune response. Recently, numerous studies also showed that RIG-I play an important role in oncogenesis and cancer progression as well. As of now, the expression pattern and the role of RIG-I in gastric cancer still remain largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated the clinical associations of RIG-I expression in human gastric cancer tissues and further explore its important contribution in the regulation of malignant phenotype of gastric cancer cells.

Methods

Immunohistochemistry was performed to study the correlation between patients’ clinical parameters and RIG-I expression in gastric cancer tissues. Knockdown of RIG-I was achieved by RNAi technology to examine the contribution of RIG-I in the regulation of biological functions in the cell lines of human gastric cancer. The Affymetrix GeneChip was performed to figure out the differential gene expression profile between RIG-I wild type and RIG-I knockdown cell lines of gastric cancer.

Results

Immunohistochemistry result demonstrated that the expression of RIG-I in gastric cancer tissues significantly correlated with pathological stage and patients’ prognoses. Furthermore, decreased RIG-I expression in human gastric cancer cell lines could significantly increase the cell migration, cell viability, and the ratio of cells in G2/M phase. Our microarray analysis also revealed that the differentially expressed gene profiles were enriched in related signal pathways or biological processes in KEGG or GO analysis respectively.

Conclusions

Our present findings showed that the decreased RIG-I expression significantly correlated with patients’ prognoses, and such down-regulation could promote the cell invasion in this malignancy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12935-018-0639-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Data mining of the cancer-related lncRNAs GO terms and KEGG pathways by using mRMR method

LncRNAs plays an important role in the regulation of gene expression. Identification of cancer-related lncRNAs GO terms and KEGG pathways is great helpful for revealing cancer-related functional biological processes. Therefore, in this study, we proposed a computational method to identify novel cancer-related lncRNAs GO terms and KEGG pathways. By using existing lncRNA database and Max-relevance Min-redundancy (mRMR) method, GO terms and KEGG pathways were evaluated based on their importance on distinguishing cancer-related and non-cancer-related lncRNAs. Finally, GO terms and KEGG pathways with high importance were presented and analyzed. Our literature reviewing showed that the top 10 ranked GO terms and pathways were really related to interpretable tumorigenesis according to recent publications.

Helicobacter pylori in human health and disease: Mechanisms for local gastric and systemic effects

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is present in roughly 50% of the human population worldwide and infection levels reach over 70% in developing countries. The infection has classically been associated with different gastro-intestinal diseases, but also with extra gastric diseases. Despite such associations, the bacterium frequently persists in the human host without inducing disease, and it has been suggested that H. pylori may also play a beneficial role in health. To understand how H. pylori can produce such diverse effects in the human host, several studies have focused on understanding the local and systemic effects triggered by this bacterium. One of the main mechanisms by which H. pylori is thought to damage the host is by inducing local and systemic inflammation. However, more recently, studies are beginning to focus on the effects of H. pylori and its metabolism on the gastric and intestinal microbiome. The objective of this review is to discuss how H. pylori has co-evolved with humans, how H. pylori presence is associated with positive and negative effects in human health and how inflammation and/or changes in the microbiome are associated with the observed outcomes.

NRF2 and the Hallmarks of Cancer

The transcription factor NRF2 is the master regulator of the cellular antioxidant response. Though recognized originally as a target of chemopreventive compounds that help prevent cancer and other maladies, accumulating evidence has established the NRF2 pathway as a driver of cancer progression, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. Recent studies have identified new functions for NRF2 in the regulation of metabolism and other essential cellular functions, establishing NRF2 as a truly pleiotropic transcription factor. In this review, we explore the roles of NRF2 in the hallmarks of cancer, indicating both tumor suppressive and tumor-promoting effects.