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Mikati MO, Miller JJ, Osbourn DM, Barekatain Y, Ghebremichael N, Shah IT, Burnham CAD, Heidel KM, Yan VC, Muller FL, Dowd CS, Edwards RL, Odom John AR. Antimicrobial Prodrug Activation by the Staphylococcal Glyoxalase GloB. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:3064-3075. [PMID: 33118347 PMCID: PMC8543975 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
With the rising prevalence of multidrug resistance, there is an urgent need to develop novel antibiotics. Many putative antibiotics demonstrate promising in vitro potency but fail in vivo due to poor drug-like qualities (e.g., serum half-life, oral absorption, solubility, and toxicity). These drug-like properties can be modified through the addition of chemical protecting groups, creating "prodrugs" that are activated prior to target inhibition. Lipophilic prodrugging techniques, including the attachment of a pivaloyloxymethyl group, have garnered attention for their ability to increase cellular permeability by masking charged residues and the relative ease of the chemical prodrugging process. Unfortunately, pivaloyloxymethyl prodrugs are rapidly activated by human sera, rendering any membrane permeability qualities absent during clinical treatment. Identification of the bacterial prodrug activation pathway(s) will allow for the development of host-stable and microbe-targeted prodrug therapies. Here, we use two zoonotic staphylococcal species, Staphylococcus schleiferi and S. pseudintermedius, to establish the mechanism of carboxy ester prodrug activation. Using a forward genetic screen, we identify a conserved locus in both species encoding the enzyme hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase (GloB), whose loss-of-function confers resistance to carboxy ester prodrugs. We enzymatically characterize GloB and demonstrate that it is a functional glyoxalase II enzyme, which has the capacity to activate carboxy ester prodrugs. As GloB homologues are both widespread and diverse in sequence, our findings suggest that GloB may be a useful mechanism for developing species- or genus-level prodrug targeting strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa O Mikati
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Justin J Miller
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Damon M Osbourn
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Yasaman Barekatain
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Naomi Ghebremichael
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Ishaan T Shah
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Carey-Ann D Burnham
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Kenneth M Heidel
- Department of Chemistry, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, United States
| | - Victoria C Yan
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Florian L Muller
- Department of Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77054, United States
| | - Cynthia S Dowd
- Department of Chemistry, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, United States
| | - Rachel L Edwards
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Audrey R Odom John
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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Glutathione homeostasis and functions: potential targets for medical interventions. JOURNAL OF AMINO ACIDS 2012; 2012:736837. [PMID: 22500213 PMCID: PMC3303626 DOI: 10.1155/2012/736837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 705] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide, which has many biological roles including protection against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. The primary goal of this paper is to characterize the principal mechanisms of the protective role of GSH against reactive species and electrophiles. The ancillary goals are to provide up-to-date knowledge of GSH biosynthesis, hydrolysis, and utilization; intracellular compartmentalization and interorgan transfer; elimination of endogenously produced toxicants; involvement in metal homeostasis; glutathione-related enzymes and their regulation; glutathionylation of sulfhydryls. Individual sections are devoted to the relationships between GSH homeostasis and pathologies as well as to developed research tools and pharmacological approaches to manipulating GSH levels. Special attention is paid to compounds mainly of a natural origin (phytochemicals) which affect GSH-related processes. The paper provides starting points for development of novel tools and provides a hypothesis for investigation of the physiology and biochemistry of glutathione with a focus on human and animal health.
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Cordell PA, Futers TS, Grant PJ, Pease RJ. The Human Hydroxyacylglutathione Hydrolase (HAGH) Gene Encodes Both Cytosolic and Mitochondrial Forms of Glyoxalase II. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:28653-61. [PMID: 15117945 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m403470200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In yeast and higher plants, separate genes encode the cytosolic and mitochondrial forms of glyoxalase II. In contrast, although glyoxalase II activity has been detected both in the cytosol and mitochondria of mammals, only a single gene encoding glyoxalase II has been identified. Previously it was thought that this gene (the hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase gene), comprised 8 exons that are transcribed into mRNA and that the resulting mRNA species encoded a single cytosolic form of glyoxalase II. Here we show that this gene gives rise to two distinct mRNA species transcribed from 9 and 10 exons, respectively. The 9-exon-derived transcript encodes two protein species: mitochondrially targeted glyoxylase II, which is initiated from an AUG codon in a previously uncharacterized part of the mRNA sequence, and cytosolic glyoxalase II, which is initiated by internal ribosome entry at a downstream AUG codon. The transcript deriving from 10 exons has an in-frame termination codon between the two initiating AUG codons and hence only encodes the cytosolic form of the protein. Confocal fluorescence microscopy indicates that the mitochondrially targeted form of glyoxalase II is directed to the mitochondrial matrix. Analysis of glyoxalase II mRNA sequences from a number of species indicates that dual initiation from alternative AUG codons is conserved throughout vertebrates.
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MESH Headings
- Alternative Splicing
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Line
- Codon
- Cytosol/enzymology
- Cytosol/metabolism
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- Exons
- Genes, Reporter
- Humans
- Immunoblotting
- Luciferases/metabolism
- Microscopy, Confocal
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Mitochondria/enzymology
- Mitochondria/metabolism
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutagenesis, Site-Directed
- Mutation
- Plasmids/metabolism
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Protein Structure, Secondary
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Ribosomes/metabolism
- Thiolester Hydrolases/chemistry
- Thiolester Hydrolases/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Cordell
- Academic Unit of Molecular Vascular Medicine, Leeds Institute for Genetics Health and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Leeds LS1 3EX, United Kingdom
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