Perturbative vibration of the coupled hydrogen-bond (O:H-O) in water

Perturbation Raman spectroscopy has underscored the hydrogen bond (O:H-O or HB) cooperativity and polarizability (HBCP) for water, which offers a proper parameter space for the performance of the HB and electrons in the energy-space-time domains. The OO repulsive coupling drives the O:H-O segmental length and energy to relax cooperatively upon perturbation. Mechanical compression shortens and stiffens the O:H nonbond while lengthens and softens the HO bond associated with polarization. However, electrification by an electric field or charge injection, or molecular undercoordination at a surface, relaxes the O:H-O in a contrasting way to the compression with derivation of the supersolid phase that is viscoelastic, less dense, thermally diffusive, and mechanically and thermally more stable. The HO bond exhibits negative thermal expansivity in the liquid and the ice-I phase while its length responds in proportional to temperature in the quasisolid phase. The O:H-O relaxation modifies the mass densities, phase boundaries, critical temperatures and the polarization endows the slipperiness of ice and superfluidity of water at the nanometer scale. Protons injection by acid solvation creates the H↔H anti-HB and introduction of electron lone pairs derives the O:⇔:O super-HB into the solutions of base or H₂O₂ hydrogen-peroxide. The repulsive H↔H and O:⇔:O interactions lengthen the solvent HO bond while the solute HO bond contracts because its bond order loss. Differential phonon spectroscopy quantifies the abundance, structure order, and stiffness of the bonds transiting from the mode of pristine water to the perturbed states. The HBCP and the perturbative spectroscopy have enabled the dynamic potentials for the relaxing O:H-O bond. Findings not only amplified the power of the Raman spectroscopy but also substantiated the understanding of anomalies of water subjecting to perturbation.

Water electrification: Principles and applications

Deep engineering of liquid water by charge and impurity injection, charged support, current flow, hydrophobic confinement, or applying a directional field has becoming increasingly important to the mankind toward overcoming energy and environment crisis. One can mediate the processes or temperatures of molecular evaporation for clean water harvesting, HO bond dissociation for H₂ fuel generation, solidification for living-organism cryopreservation, structure stiffening for bioengineering, etc., with mechanisms being still puzzling. We show that the framework of "hydrogen bonding and electronic dynamics" has substantiated the progress in the fundamental issues and the aimed engineering. The segmental disparity of the coupled hydrogen bond (O:HO or HB with ":" being lone pair of oxygen) resolves their specific-heat curves and turns out a quasisolid phase (QS, bound at -15 and 4 °C). Electrification shows dual functionality that not only aligns, orders, polarizes water molecules but also stretches the O:HO bond. The O:HO segmental cooperative relaxation and polarization shift the QS boundary through Einstein's relation, ΔΘ_Dx ∝ Δω_x, resulting in a gel-like, viscoelastic, and stable supersolid phase with raised melting point T_m and lowered temperatures for vaporization T_V and ice nucleation T_N. The supersolidity and electro structure ordering provide additional forces to reinforce Armstrong's water bridge. QS dispersion and the secondary effect of electrification such as compression define the T_N for Dufour's electro-freezing. The T_V depression, surface stress disruption, and electrostatic attraction raise Asakawa's molecular evaporability. Composition of opposite, compatible fields eases the HO dissociation and soil wetting. Progress evidences not only the essentiality of the coupled O:HO bond theory but also the feasibility of engineering water and solutions by programmed electrification.

Pressure-Induced Structural Evolution and Bandgap Optimization of Lead-Free Halide Double Perovskite (NH4)2SeBr6

Lead-free halide double perovskites (HDPs) are promising candidates for high-performance solar cells because of their environmentally-friendly property and chemical stability in air. The power conversion efficiency of HDPs-based solar cells needs to be further improved before their commercialization in the market. It requires a thoughtful understanding of the correlation between their specific structure and property. Here, the structural and optical properties of an important HDP-based (NH4)2SeBr6 are investigated under high pressure. A dramatic piezochromism is found with the increase in pressure. Optical absorption spectra reveal the pressure-induced red-shift in bandgap with two distinct anomalies at 6.57 and 11.18 GPa, and the energy tunability reaches 360 meV within 20.02 GPa. Combined with structural characterizations, Raman and infrared spectra, and theoretical calculations using density functional theory, results reveal that, the first anomaly is caused by the formation of a Br-Br bond among the [SeBr6]2- octahedra, and the latter is attributed to a cubic-to-tetragonal phase transition. These results provide a clear correlation between the chemical bonding and optical properties of (NH4)2SeBr6. It is believed that the proposed strategy paves the way to optimize the optoelectronic properties of HDPs and further stimulate the development of next-generation clear energy based on HDPs solar cells.

Hydration of Hofmeister ions

Water dissolves salt into ions and then hydrates the ions to form an aqueous solution. Hydration of ions deforms the hydrogen bonding network and triggers the solution with what the pure water never shows such as conductivity, molecular diffusivity, thermal stability, surface stress, solubility, and viscosity, having enormous impact to many branches in biochemistry, chemistry, physics, and energy and environmental industry sectors. However, regulations for the solute-solute-solvent interactions are still open for exploration. From the perspective of the screened ionic polarization and O:H-O bond relaxation, this treatise features the recent progress and a perspective in understanding the hydration dynamics of Hofmeister ions in the typical YI, NaX, ZX₂, and NaT salt solutions (Y = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X = F, Cl, Br, I; Z = Mg, Ca, Ba, Sr; T = ClO₄, NO₃, HSO₄, SCN). Phonon spectrometric analysis turned out the f(C) number fraction of bonds transition from the mode of deionized water to the hydrating. The linear f(C) ∝ C form features the invariant hydration volume of small cations that are fully-screened by their hydration H₂O dipoles. The nonlinear f(C) ∝ 1 - exp.(-C/C₀) form describes that the number insufficiency of the ordered hydrating H₂O dipoles partially screens the anions. Molecular anions show stronger yet shorter electric field of dipoles. The screened ionic polarization, inter-solute interaction, and O:H-O bond transition unify the solution conductivity, surface stress, viscosity, and critical energies for phase transition.

Unprecedented O:⇔:O compression and H↔H fragilization in Lewis solutions

Charge injection in terms of protons, lone pairs, cations and anions by acid and base solvation mediates the HB network and properties of Lewis solutions through H↔H fragilization, O:⇔:O compression and polarization, ionic polarization and hydrating H₂O dipolar screen shielding, anion–anion repulsion, compressed solvent H–O bond elongation and undercoordinated solute H–O bond contraction.

Perceptible isotopic effect in 3D-framework of α-glycine at low temperatures

Glycine, the most fundamental amino acid, albeit studied for many decades, has kept researchers captivated with interesting structural variations relevant to important biological, astrophysical and technological applications. We report here a noticeable effect of deuteration on the three dimensional hydrogen bonding network of α-glycine using low temperature infrared absorption studies in a wide spectral range, corroborated with Raman scattering studies. These systematic studies in the range 300-4.2 K have demonstrated a relatively compact assembly of glycine molecules in the three dimensional bilayered structure of hydrogenated glycine (gly-h) at low temperatures. This is inferred from a remarkable temperature effect in the weak intra-bilayer hydrogen bond ~ along the b-axis, which strengthens upon cooling. A pronounced increase in the intensity of NH₃ torsional and NH stretching modes has been observed. This is accompanied with a large rate of stiffening and softening respectively of these modes upon cooling and a change in slope across 210 K and 80 K. In contrast, the D---O hydrogen bond lengths in fully deuterated isotope (gly-d), as estimated using empirical correlation, show that the weak intra-bilayer hydrogen bond is not strengthened upon cooling down to 180 K, whereas the stronger intra-layer hydrogen bonds in the ac-plane become further strong. The ND₃ torsional vibrations show no temperature effect. This implies a relatively stable two dimensional layered structure formed by strongly hydrogen bonded glycine sheets in the ac-plane. Below 180 K, similar qualitative trends have been obtained for the hydrogen bond lengths in the two isotopes. In addition, temperature induced variation of the characteristic "indicator" band of zwitterionic gly-h and gly-d has also been reported.

High-Pressure Studies of Hydrogen-Bonded Energetic Material 3,6-Dihydrazino-s-tetrazine Using DFT

Hydrogen bonding is an important noncovalent interaction that plays a key role in most of the CHNO-based energetic materials, which has a great impact on the structural, stability, and vibrational properties. By analyzing the structural changes, IR spectra, and the Hirshfeld surfaces, we investigated the high-pressure behavior of 3,6-dihydrazino-s-tetrazine (DHT) to provide detailed description of hydrogen bonding interactions using dispersion-corrected density functional theory. The strengthening of hydrogen bonding is observed by the pressure-induced weakening of covalent N-H bonds, which is consistent with the red shift of NH/NH₂ stretching vibrational modes. The intermolecular interactions in DHT crystals lead to more compact and stable structures that can increase the density but diminish the heat of detonation, Q. The calculated detonation properties of DHT (D = 7.62 km/s, P = 25.19 GPa) are slightly smaller than those of a similar explosive 3,6-bis-nitroguanyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (D = 7.9 km/s, P = 27.36 GPa). Overall, the crystallographic and spectroscopic results along with Hirshfeld surface analysis as a function of pressure reveal the presence of strong hydrogen bonding networks in the crystal structure of DHT.

Supersolidity of undercoordinated and hydrating water

Electrostatic polarization or molecular undercoordination endows the supersolidity by shortening and stiffening the H–O bond and lengthening and softening the O:H nonbond, deepening the O 1s energy level, and prolonging the photoelectron and phonon lifetime. The supersolid phase is less dense, viscoelastic, mechanically and thermally more stable, which offsets boundaries of structural phases and critical temperatures for phase transition of the coordination-resolved core–shell structured ice such as the ‘no man's land’ supercooling and superheating.

Pressure-Induced Melting of Confined Ice

The classic regelation experiment of Thomson in the 1850s deals with cutting an ice cube, followed by refreezing. The cutting was attributed to pressure-induced melting but has been challenged continuously, and only lately consensus emerged by understanding that compression shortens the O:H nonbond and lengthens the H-O bond simultaneously. This H-O elongation leads to energy loss and lowers the melting point. The hot debate survived well over 150 years, mainly due to a poorly defined heat exchange with the environment in the experiment. In our current experiment, we achieved thermal isolation from the environment and studied the fully reversible ice-liquid water transition for water confined between graphene and muscovite mica. We observe a transition from two-dimensional (2D) ice into a quasi-liquid phase by applying a pressure exerted by an atomic force microscopy tip. At room temperature, the critical pressure amounts to about 6 GPa. The transition is completely reversible: refreezing occurs when the applied pressure is lifted. The critical pressure to melt the 2D ice decreases with temperature, and we measured the phase coexistence line between 293 and 333 K. From a Clausius-Clapeyron analysis, we determine the latent heat of fusion of two-dimensional ice at 0.15 eV/molecule, being twice as large as that of bulk ice.

Room-temperature NaI/H2O compression icing: solute–solute interactions

H–O bond energy governs the P_Cx for Na/H₂O liquid–VI–VII phase transition. Solute concentration affects the path of phase transitions differently with the solute type. Solute–solute interaction lessens the P_C2 sensitivity to compression. The P_C1 goes along the liquid–VI boundary till the triple phase joint.

Hydrogen-bond potential for ice VIII-X phase transition

Repulsive force between the O-H bonding electrons and the O:H nonbonding pair within hydrogen bond (O-H:O) is an often overlooked interaction which dictates the extraordinary recoverability and sensitivity of water and ice. Here, we present a potential model for this hidden force opposing ice compression of ice VIII-X phase transition based on the density functional theory (DFT) and neutron scattering observations. We consider the H-O bond covalent force, the O:H nonbond dispersion force, and the hidden force to approach equilibrium under compression. Due to the charge polarization within the O:H-O bond, the curvatures of the H-O bond and the O:H nonbond potentials show opposite sign before transition, resulting in the asymmetric relaxation of H-O and O:H (O:H contraction and H-O elongation) and the H+ proton centralization towards phase X. When cross the VIII-X phase boundary, both H-O and O:H contract slightly. The potential model reproduces the VIII-X phase transition as observed in experiment. Development of the potential model may provide a choice for further calculations of water anomalies.

Proton transfer aiding phase transitions in oxalic acid dihydrate under pressure

Oxalic acid dihydrate, an important molecular solid in crystal chemistry, ecology and physiology, has been studied for nearly 100 years now. The most debated issues regarding its proton dynamics have arisen due to an unusually short hydrogen bond between the acid and water molecules. Using combined in situ spectroscopic studies and first-principles simulations at high pressures, we show that the structural modification associated with this hydrogen bond is much more significant than ever assumed. Initially, under pressure, proton migration takes place along this strong hydrogen bond at a very low pressure of 2 GPa. This results in the protonation of water with systematic formation of dianionic oxalate and hydronium ion motifs, thus reversing the hydrogen bond hierarchy in the high pressure phase II. The resulting hydrogen bond between a hydronium ion and a carboxylic group shows remarkable strengthening under pressure, even in the pure ionic phase III. The loss of cooperativity of hydrogen bonds leads to another phase transition at ∼ 9 GPa through reorientation of other hydrogen bonds. The high pressure phase IV is stabilized by a strong hydrogen bond between the dominant CO2 and H2O groups of oxalate and hydronium ions, respectively. These findings suggest that oxalate systems may provide useful insights into proton transfer reactions and assembly of simple molecules under extreme conditions.

Compression icing of room-temperature NaX solutions (X = F, Cl, Br, I)

From the image, it is observed that salt hydration increases the critical pressures for the liquid–VI–VII phase transitions in the Hofmeister series order in terms of electronegativity difference Δη and anion radius R.

Ice Regelation: Hydrogen-bond extraordinary recoverability and water quasisolid-phase-boundary dispersivity

Regelation, i.e., ice melts under compression and freezes again when the pressure is relieved, remains puzzling since its discovery in 1850’s by Faraday. Here we show that hydrogen bond (O:H-O) cooperativity and its extraordinary recoverability resolve this anomaly. The H-O bond and the O:H nonbond possesses each a specific heat η_x(T/Θ_Dx) whose Debye temperature Θ_Dx is proportional to its characteristic phonon frequency ω_x according to Einstein’s relationship. A superposition of the η_x(T/Θ_Dx) curves for the H-O bond (x = H, ω_H ~ 3200 cm⁻¹) and the O:H nonbond (x = L, ω_L ~ 200 cm⁻¹, Θ_DL = 198 K) yields two intersecting temperatures that define the liquid/quasisolid/solid phase boundaries. Compression shortens the O:H nonbond and stiffens its phonon but does the opposite to the H-O bond through O-O Coulomb repulsion, which closes up the intersection temperatures and hence depress the melting temperature of quasisolid ice. Reproduction of the T_m(P) profile clarifies that the H-O bond energy E_H determines the T_m with derivative of E_H = 3.97 eV for bulk water and ice. Oxygen atom always finds bonding partners to retain its sp³-orbital hybridization once the O:H breaks, which ensures O:H-O bond recoverability to its original state once the pressure is relieved.

Potential Paths for the Hydrogen-Bond Relaxing With (H2O)N Cluster Size

Relaxation of the inter- and intra-molecular interactions for the hydrogen bond (O:H-O) between undercoordinated molecules determines the unusual behavior of water nanodroplets and nanobubbles. However, probing such potentials remains unreality. Here we show that the Lagrangian solution [Huang et al., J. Phys. Chem. B, 2013. 117: 13639] transforms the observed H-O bond (x = H) and O:H nonbond (x = L) lengths and phonon frequencies (dx, x) [Sun et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2013. 4: 2565] into the respective force constants and bond energies (kx, Ex) and hence enables the mapping of the potential paths for the O:H-O bond relaxing with water cluster size. Results show that molecular undercoordination not only reduces the molecular size (dH) with enhanced H-O energy from the bulk value of 3.97 to 5.10 eV for a H2O monomer, but also enlarges the molecular separation (dL) with reduced O:H energy from 95 to 35 meV for a dimer. The H-O energy gain raises the melting point from bulk value 273 to 310 K for the skin and the O:H energy loss lowers the freezing temperature from bulk value 258 to 202 K for 1.4 nm sized droplet, by dispersing the quasisolid phase boundaries.

Changes of water hydrogen bond network with different externalities

It is crucial to uncover the mystery of water cluster and structural motif to have an insight into the abundant anomalies bound to water. In this context, the analysis of influence factors is an alternative way to shed light on the nature of water clusters. Water structure has been tentatively explained within different frameworks of structural models. Based on comprehensive analysis and summary of the studies on the response of water to four externalities (i.e., temperature, pressure, solutes and external fields), the changing trends of water structure and a deduced intrinsic structural motif are put forward in this work. The variations in physicochemical and biological effects of water induced by each externality are also discussed to emphasize the role of water in our daily life. On this basis, the underlying problems that need to be further studied are formulated by pointing out the limitations attached to current study techniques and to outline prominent studies that have come up recently.

Mediating relaxation and polarization of hydrogen-bonds in water by NaCl salting and heating

Infrared spectroscopy and contact-angle measurements revealed that NaCl salting has the same effect as heating on O:H phonon softening and H-O phonon stiffening, but has the opposite effect on skin polarization of liquid water. The mechanics of thermal modulation of O-O Coulomb repulsion [Sun, et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2013, 4, 3238] may suggest a possible mechanism for this NaCl involved Hofmeister effect, aqueous solution modulated surface tension and its abilities in protein dissolution, from the perspective of Coulomb mediation of interaction within the O:H-O bond.

Pharmaceutical hydrates under ambient conditions from high-pressure seeds: a case study of GABA monohydrate

A monohydrate form of the neurotransmitter γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) has been crystallised in the 0.4–0.8 GPa pressure range, recovered to ambient pressure and then used as a seed. Theoretical calculations have been used to rationalise the experimental observations and gain an insight into thermodynamic stability.

Hydrogen-bond memory and water-skin supersolidity resolving the Mpemba paradox

O:H–O bond anomalous relaxation and the skin high thermal-diffusivity cool hotter water faster than usual in the non-adiabatic ambient system.

Size, separation, structural order, and mass density of molecules packing in water and ice

The structural symmetry and molecular separation in water and ice remain uncertain. We present herewith a solution to unifying the density, the structure order and symmetry, the size (H-O length dH), and the separation (d(OO) = d(L) + d(H) or the O:H length d(L)) of molecules packing in water and ice in terms of statistic mean. This solution reconciles: i) the d(L) and the d(H) symmetrization of the O:H-O bond in compressed ice, ii) the d(OO) relaxation of cooling water and ice and, iii) the d(OO) expansion of a dimer and between molecules at water surface. With any one of the d(OO), the density ρ(g·cm⁻³), the d(L), and the d(H), as a known input, one can resolve the rest quantities using this solution that is probing conditions or methods independent. We clarified that: i) liquid water prefers statistically the mono-phase of tetrahedrally-coordinated structure with fluctuation, ii) the low-density phase (supersolid phase as it is strongly polarized with even lower density) exists only in regions consisting molecules with fewer than four neighbors and, iii) repulsion between electron pairs on adjacent oxygen atoms dictates the cooperative relaxation of the segmented O:H-O bond, which is responsible for the performance of water and ice.

Density and Phonon-Stiffness Anomalies of Water and Ice in the Full Temperature Range

The specific-heat difference between the O:H van der Waals bond and the H-O polar-covalent bond and the Coulomb repulsion between electron pairs on adjacent oxygen atoms determine the angle-length-stiffness relaxation dynamics of the hydrogen bond (O:H-O), which is responsible for the density and phonon-stiffness oscillation of water ice over the full temperature range. Cooling shortens and stiffens the part of relatively lower specific-heat, and meanwhile lengthens and softens the other part of the O:H-O bond via repulsion. Length contraction/elongation of a specific part always stiffens/softens its corresponding phonon. In the liquid and in the solid phase, the O:H bond contracts more than the H-O elongates, hence, an O:H-O cooling contraction and the seemingly "regular" process of cooling densification take place. During freezing, the H-O contracts less than the O:H elongates, leading to an O:H-O elongation and volume expansion. At extremely low temperatures, the O:H-O angle stretching lowers the density slightly as the O:H and the H-O lengths change insignificantly. In ice, the O-O distance is longer than it is in water, resulting in a lower density, so that ice floats.

Density, Elasticity, and Stability Anomalies of Water Molecules with Fewer than Four Neighbors

Goldschmidt-Pauling contraction of the H-O polar-covalent bond elongates and polarizes the other noncovalent part of the hydrogen bond (O:H-O), that is, the O:H van der Waals bond, significantly, through the Coulomb repulsion between the electron pairs of adjacent oxygen (O-O). This process enlarges and stiffens those H2O molecules having fewer than four neighbors such as molecular clusters, hydration shells, and the surface skins of water and ice. The shortening of the H-O bond raises the local density of bonding electrons, which in turn polarizes the lone pairs of electrons on oxygen. The stiffening of the shortened H-O bond increases the magnitude of the O1s binding energy shift, causes the blue shift of the H-O phonon frequencies, and elevates the melting point of molecular clusters and ultrathin films of water, which gives rise to their elastic, hydrophobic, highly-polarized, ice-like, and low-density behavior at room temperature.