1
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Usman FO, Gogoi AR, Mixdorf JC, Gutierrez O, Nguyen HM. Rhodium-Catalyzed Asymmetric Synthesis of 1,2-Disubstituted Allylic Fluorides. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202314843. [PMID: 37856668 PMCID: PMC11069351 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202314843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Although there are many methods for the asymmetric synthesis of monosubstituted allylic fluorides, construction of enantioenriched 1,2-disubstituted allylic fluorides has not been reported. To address this gap, we report an enantioselective synthesis of 1,2-disubstituted allylic fluorides using chiral diene-ligated rhodium catalyst, Et3 N ⋅ 3HF as a source of fluoride, and Morita Baylis Hillman (MBH) trichloroacetimidates. Kinetic studies show that one enantiomer of racemic MBH substrate reacts faster than the other. Computational studies reveal that both syn and anti π-allyl complexes are formed upon ionization of allylic substrate, and the syn complexes are slightly energetically favorable. This is in contrast to our previous observation for formation of monosubstituted π-allyl intermediates, in which the syn π-allyl conformation is strongly preferred. In addition, the presence of an electron-withdrawing group at C2 position of racemic MBH substrate renders 1,2-disubstituted π-allyl intermediate formation endergonic and reversible. To compare, formation of monosubstituted π-allyl intermediates was exergonic and irreversible. DFT calculations and kinetic studies support a dynamic kinetic asymmetric transformation process wherein the rate of isomerization of the 1,2-disubstituted π-allylrhodium complexes is faster than that of fluoride addition onto the more reactive intermediate. The 1,2-disubstituted allylic fluorides were obtained in good yields, enantioselectivity, and branched selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuad O Usman
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Achyut R Gogoi
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Jason C Mixdorf
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Osvaldo Gutierrez
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Hien M Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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2
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Rong J, Haider A, Jeppesen TE, Josephson L, Liang SH. Radiochemistry for positron emission tomography. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3257. [PMID: 37277339 PMCID: PMC10241151 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36377-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) constitutes a functional imaging technique that is harnessed to probe biological processes in vivo. PET imaging has been used to diagnose and monitor the progression of diseases, as well as to facilitate drug development efforts at both preclinical and clinical stages. The wide applications and rapid development of PET have ultimately led to an increasing demand for new methods in radiochemistry, with the aim to expand the scope of synthons amenable for radiolabeling. In this work, we provide an overview of commonly used chemical transformations for the syntheses of PET tracers in all aspects of radiochemistry, thereby highlighting recent breakthrough discoveries and contemporary challenges in the field. We discuss the use of biologicals for PET imaging and highlight general examples of successful probe discoveries for molecular imaging with PET - with a particular focus on translational and scalable radiochemistry concepts that have been entered to clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Rong
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Ahmed Haider
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Troels E Jeppesen
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Steven H Liang
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
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3
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Pupo G, Gouverneur V. Hydrogen Bonding Phase-Transfer Catalysis with Alkali Metal Fluorides and Beyond. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:5200-5213. [PMID: 35294171 PMCID: PMC9084554 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c00190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Phase-transfer catalysis (PTC) is one of the most powerful catalytic manifolds for asymmetric synthesis. Chiral cationic or anionic PTC strategies have enabled a variety of transformations, yet studies on the use of insoluble inorganic salts as nucleophiles for the synthesis of enantioenriched molecules have remained elusive. A long-standing challenge is the development of methods for asymmetric carbon-fluorine bond formation from readily available and cost-effective alkali metal fluorides. In this Perspective, we describe how H-bond donors can provide a solution through fluoride binding. We use examples, primarily from our own research, to discuss how hydrogen bonding interactions impact fluoride reactivity and the role of H-bond donors as phase-transfer catalysts to bring solid-phase alkali metal fluorides in solution. These studies led to hydrogen bonding phase-transfer catalysis (HB-PTC), a new concept in PTC, originally crafted for alkali metal fluorides but offering opportunities beyond enantioselective fluorination. Looking ahead, the unlimited options that one can consider to diversify the H-bond donor, the inorganic salt, and the electrophile, herald a new era in phase-transfer catalysis. Whether abundant inorganic salts of lattice energy significantly higher than those studied to date could be considered as nucleophiles, e.g., CaF2, remains an open question, with solutions that may be found through synergistic PTC catalysis or beyond PTC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Pupo
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
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5
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Ajenjo J, Destro G, Cornelissen B, Gouverneur V. Closing the gap between 19F and 18F chemistry. EJNMMI Radiopharm Chem 2021; 6:33. [PMID: 34564781 PMCID: PMC8464544 DOI: 10.1186/s41181-021-00143-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) has become an invaluable tool for drug discovery and diagnosis. The positron-emitting radionuclide fluorine-18 is frequently used in PET radiopharmaceuticals due to its advantageous characteristics; hence, methods streamlining access to 18F-labelled radiotracers can make a direct impact in medicine. For many years, access to 18F-labelled radiotracers was limited by the paucity of methodologies available, and the poor diversity of precursors amenable to 18F-incorporation. During the last two decades, 18F-radiochemistry has progressed at a fast pace with the appearance of numerous methodologies for late-stage 18F-incorporation onto complex molecules from a range of readily available precursors including those that do not require pre-functionalisation. Key to these advances is the inclusion of new activation modes to facilitate 18F-incorporation. Specifically, new advances in late-stage 19F-fluorination under transition metal catalysis, photoredox catalysis, and organocatalysis combined with the availability of novel 18F-labelled fluorination reagents have enabled the invention of novel processes for 18F-incorporation onto complex (bio)molecules. This review describes these major breakthroughs with a focus on methodologies for C-18F bond formation. This reinvigorated interest in 18F-radiochemistry that we have witnessed in recent years has made a direct impact on 19F-chemistry with many laboratories refocusing their efforts on the development of methods using nucleophilic fluoride instead of fluorination reagents derived from molecular fluorine gas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Ajenjo
- Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Gianluca Destro
- Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Bart Cornelissen
- Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3TA, UK.
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre M. Sorlin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Fuad O. Usman
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Connor K. English
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Hien M. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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7
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Kaldas SJ, Kran E, Mück-Lichtenfeld C, Yudin AK, Studer A. Reaction of Vinyl Aziridines with Arynes: Synthesis of Benzazepines and Branched Allyl Fluorides. Chemistry 2020; 26:1501-1505. [PMID: 31628755 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201904727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
We report the cycloaddition between vinyl aziridines and arynes. Depending on the reaction conditions and the choice of the aryne precursor, the aziridinium intermediate can be trapped through two distinct mechanistic pathways. The first one proceeds through a formal [5+2] cycloaddition to furnish valuable multi-substituted benzazepines. In the second pathway, the aziridinium is intercepted by a fluoride ion to afford allylic fluorides in good yields. Both reactions proceed stereospecifically and furnish enantiopure benzazepines and allylic fluorides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif J Kaldas
- Davenport Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Eva Kran
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Christian Mück-Lichtenfeld
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Andrei K Yudin
- Davenport Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Armido Studer
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149, Münster, Germany
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8
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Kassekert LA, Dingwell CE, De Hoe GX, Hillmyer MA. Processable epoxy-telechelic polyalkenamers and polyolefins for photocurable elastomers. Polym Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9py01486a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Processable epoxy-telechelic polyalkenamers and polyolefins were synthesized using ring-opening metathesis polymerization and photochemically cured to furnish the corresponding crosslinked elastomers.
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9
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Li X, Shi X, Li X, Shi D. Recent advances in transition-metal-catalyzed incorporation of fluorine-containing groups. Beilstein J Org Chem 2019; 15:2213-2270. [PMID: 31598178 PMCID: PMC6774084 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.15.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Fluorine chemistry plays an increasingly important role in pharmaceutical, agricultural, and materials industries. The incorporation of fluorine-containing groups into organic molecules can improve their chemical and physical properties, which attracts continuous interest in organic synthesis. Among various reported methods, transition-metal-catalyzed fluorination/fluoroalkylation has emerged as a powerful method for the construction of these compounds. This review attempts to describe the major advances in the transition-metal-catalyzed incorporation of fluorine, trifluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trifluoromethylthio, and trifluoromethoxy groups reported between 2011 and 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Li
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaolin Shi
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China.,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiangqian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, 72 Binhai Road, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Dayong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, 72 Binhai Road, Qingdao 266237, China
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10
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Sorlin AM, Mixdorf JC, Rotella ME, Martin RT, Gutierrez O, Nguyen HM. The Role of Trichloroacetimidate To Enable Iridium-Catalyzed Regio- and Enantioselective Allylic Fluorination: A Combined Experimental and Computational Study. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:14843-14852. [PMID: 31438667 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b07575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Asymmetric allylic fluorination has proven to be a robust and efficient methodology with potential applications for the development of pharmaceuticals and practical synthesis for 18F-radiolabeling. A combined computational (dispersion-corrected DFT) and experimental approach was taken to interrogate the mechanism of the diene-ligated, iridium-catalyzed regio- and enantioselective allylic fluorination. Our group has shown that, in the presence of an iridium(I) catalyst and nucleophilic fluoride source (Et3N·3HF), allylic trichloroacetimidates undergo rapid fluoride substitution to generate allylic fluoride products with excellent levels of branched-to-linear ratios. Mechanistic studies reveal the crucial role of the trichloroacetimidate as a potent leaving group and ligand to enable conversion of racemic allylic trichloroacetimidates to the corresponding enantioenriched allylic fluorides, via a dynamic kinetic asymmetric transformation (DYKAT), in the presence of the chiral bicyclo[3.3.0]octadiene-ligated iridium catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre M Sorlin
- Department of Chemistry , University of Iowa , Iowa City , Iowa 52242 , United States
| | - Jason C Mixdorf
- Department of Chemistry , University of Iowa , Iowa City , Iowa 52242 , United States
| | - Madeline E Rotella
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Robert T Martin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Osvaldo Gutierrez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Hien M Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry , Wayne State University , Detroit , Michigan 48202 , United States
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11
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Deng X, Rong J, Wang L, Vasdev N, Zhang L, Josephson L, Liang SH. Chemistry for Positron Emission Tomography: Recent Advances in 11 C-, 18 F-, 13 N-, and 15 O-Labeling Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:2580-2605. [PMID: 30054961 PMCID: PMC6405341 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201805501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a molecular imaging technology that provides quantitative information about function and metabolism in biological processes in vivo for disease diagnosis and therapy assessment. The broad application and rapid advances of PET has led to an increased demand for new radiochemical methods to synthesize highly specific molecules bearing positron-emitting radionuclides. This Review provides an overview of commonly used labeling reactions through examples of clinically relevant PET tracers and highlights the most recent developments and breakthroughs over the past decade, with a focus on 11 C, 18 F, 13 N, and 15 O.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyun Deng
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Jian Rong
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Lu Wang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Neil Vasdev
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Inc., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Steven H Liang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
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12
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Deng X, Rong J, Wang L, Vasdev N, Zhang L, Josephson L, Liang SH. Chemie der Positronenemissionstomographie: Aktuelle Fortschritte bei
11
C‐,
18
F‐,
13
N‐ und
15
O‐Markierungsreaktionen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201805501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyun Deng
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Jian Rong
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Lu Wang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Neil Vasdev
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Medicine DesignPfizer Inc. Cambridge MA 02139 USA
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Steven H. Liang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
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13
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Tang WK, Xu ZW, Xu J, Tang F, Li XX, Dai JJ, Xu HJ, Feng YS. Irradiation-Induced Cobaloxime-Catalyzed C-H Monofluoroalkylation of Styrenes at Room Temperature. Org Lett 2019; 21:196-200. [PMID: 30550293 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b03656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
A cobaloxime-catalyzed photochemical synthesis of allyl monofluorides from styrenes is described herein. This method is characterized by mild reaction conditions, low-cost catalyst, and broad substrate scope. Furthermore, this convenient method will provide a facile synthesis toward novel monofluoroalkylated natural product and pharmaceutical derivatives. Mechanistic investigations indicate that a monofluoroalkyl radical is involved in the catalytic cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Ke Tang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advance Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Zhuo-Wei Xu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advance Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Jun Xu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Fei Tang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advance Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Xuan Li
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advance Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Jian-Jun Dai
- School of Food and Biological Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Hua-Jian Xu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advance Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China.,School of Food and Biological Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China
| | - Yi-Si Feng
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advance Catalytic Materials and Reaction Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Hefei University of Technology , Hefei 230009 , P. R. China.,Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Heterocyclic Chemistry , Maanshan 243110 , P. R. China
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14
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Mixdorf JC, Sorlin AM, Dick DW, Nguyen HM. Iridium-Catalyzed Radiosynthesis of Branched Allylic [18F]Fluorides. Org Lett 2018; 21:60-64. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b03496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason C. Mixdorf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Alexandre M. Sorlin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - David W. Dick
- University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Hien M. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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15
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16
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Niwa T, Ujiie K, Sato H, Egami H, Hamashima Y. Asymmetric Fluorination of Cyclic Tetrasubstituted Alkenes with a Pendant Amide Groups under Dianionic Phase-Transfer Catalysis. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2018; 66:920-922. [DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c18-00551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Niwa
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Kiyoshi Ujiie
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Hitomi Sato
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
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17
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Wang ZY, Wan JH, Wang GY, Jin RX, Lan Q, Wang XS. Nickel-Catalyzed Heck-Type Monofluoroacetation of Styrenes for Facile Synthesis of Allylic Fluorides. Chem Asian J 2018; 13:261-265. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201701655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Yu Wang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and Department of Chemistry; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 P.R. China
| | - Jia-Hao Wan
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and Department of Chemistry; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 P.R. China
| | - Gao-Yin Wang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and Department of Chemistry; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 P.R. China
| | - Ruo-Xing Jin
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and Department of Chemistry; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 P.R. China
| | - Quan Lan
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and Department of Chemistry; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 P.R. China
| | - Xi-Sheng Wang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale and Department of Chemistry; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 P.R. China
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18
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Zhang Z, Chen P, Liu G. Copper-mediated intramolecular aminofluorination of 1,3-dienes by using nucleophilic fluorine reagents. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:8709-8712. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cc04909b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A copper-mediated intramolecular aminofluorination of 1,3-dienes is disclosed, in which both AgF and Et3N·3HF can be used as the fluorine source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuxiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Pinhong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Guosheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
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19
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Mixdorf JC, Sorlin AM, Zhang Q, Nguyen HM. Asymmetric Synthesis of Allylic Fluorides via Fluorination of Racemic Allylic Trichloroacetimidates Catalyzed by a Chiral Diene-Iridium Complex. ACS Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b03786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason C. Mixdorf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United Sates
| | - Alexandre M. Sorlin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United Sates
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United Sates
| | - Hien M. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United Sates
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20
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Mizuta S, Otaki H, Kitagawa A, Kitamura K, Morii Y, Ishihara J, Nishi K, Hashimoto R, Usui T, Chiba K. Ionic Liquid-Mediated Hydrofluorination of o-Azaxylylenes Derived from 3-Bromooxindoles. Org Lett 2017; 19:2572-2575. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.7b00887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Mizuta
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo, Nagasaki 852-8521 Japan
| | - Hiroki Otaki
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo, Nagasaki 852-8521 Japan
| | - Ayako Kitagawa
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo, Nagasaki 852-8521 Japan
| | - Kanami Kitamura
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo, Nagasaki 852-8521 Japan
| | - Yuki Morii
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo, Nagasaki 852-8521 Japan
| | - Jun Ishihara
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14 Bunkyo, Nagasaki 852-8521 Japan
| | - Kodai Nishi
- Department
of Radioisotope Medicine, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
| | - Ryo Hashimoto
- Nishiisahaya Hospital, 3015 Kaizu, Isahaya, Nagasaki 854-0063, Japan
| | - Toshiya Usui
- Nishiisahaya Hospital, 3015 Kaizu, Isahaya, Nagasaki 854-0063, Japan
| | - Kenya Chiba
- Nishiisahaya Hospital, 3015 Kaizu, Isahaya, Nagasaki 854-0063, Japan
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21
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Zhang L, Zhang XB, Zhang DD, He SG. Theoretical prediction of the synthesis of 2,3-dihydropyridines through Ir( iii)-catalysed reaction of unsaturated oximes with alkenes. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra25501a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ir(iii)-catalysed reaction of unsaturated oximes with alkenes was predicted, and the results indicate a more efficient synthesis of 2,3-dihydropyridines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Anhui University of Science and Technology
- Huainan 232001
- People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang-Biao Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Anhui University of Science and Technology
- Huainan 232001
- People's Republic of China
| | - Dan-Dan Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering
- Anhui University of Science and Technology
- Huainan 232001
- People's Republic of China
| | - Sheng-Gui He
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences
- State Key Laboratory for Structural Chemistry of Unstable and Stable Species
- Institute of Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
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22
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Tian P, Wang CQ, Cai SH, Song S, Ye L, Feng C, Loh TP. F– Nucleophilic-Addition-Induced Allylic Alkylation. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:15869-15872. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b11205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Panpan Tian
- Institute
of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering,
Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, P. R. China
| | - Cheng-Qiang Wang
- Institute
of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering,
Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Sai-Hu Cai
- Institute
of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering,
Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, P. R. China
| | - Shengjin Song
- Institute
of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering,
Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, P. R. China
| | - Lu Ye
- Institute
of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering,
Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Chao Feng
- Institute
of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering,
Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Teck-Peng Loh
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, P. R. China
- Division
of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical
Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616
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23
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Andrew McTeague
- Department of Chemistry; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; 77 Massachusetts Ave. Cambridge MA 02139 USA
| | - Timothy F. Jamison
- Department of Chemistry; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; 77 Massachusetts Ave. Cambridge MA 02139 USA
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24
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Photoredox Activation of SF6for Fluorination. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:15072-15075. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201608792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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25
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Pfeifer L, Engle KM, Pidgeon GW, Sparkes HA, Thompson AL, Brown JM, Gouverneur V. Hydrogen-Bonded Homoleptic Fluoride–Diarylurea Complexes: Structure, Reactivity, and Coordinating Power. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:13314-13325. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b07501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Pfeifer
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Keary M. Engle
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - George W. Pidgeon
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Hazel A. Sparkes
- ISIS Facility,
STFC-Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, OX11
0QX Didcot, United Kingdom
| | - Amber L. Thompson
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - John M. Brown
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, United Kingdom
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26
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Carvalho NF, Pliego JR. Theoretical Design and Calculation of a Crown Ether Phase-Transfer-Catalyst Scaffold for Nucleophilic Fluorination Merging Two Catalytic Concepts. J Org Chem 2016; 81:8455-63. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.6b01624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathália F. Carvalho
- Departamento de Ciências
Naturais, Universidade Federal de São João Del-Rei, São
João del-Rei 36301-160, MG, Brazil
| | - Josefredo R. Pliego
- Departamento de Ciências
Naturais, Universidade Federal de São João Del-Rei, São
João del-Rei 36301-160, MG, Brazil
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27
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Petrone DA, Ye J, Lautens M. Modern Transition-Metal-Catalyzed Carbon–Halogen Bond Formation. Chem Rev 2016; 116:8003-104. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David A. Petrone
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto Davenport Research Laboratories, 80 St. George St. Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Juntao Ye
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto Davenport Research Laboratories, 80 St. George St. Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Mark Lautens
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto Davenport Research Laboratories, 80 St. George St. Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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28
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Buckingham F, Gouverneur V. Asymmetric 18F-fluorination for applications in positron emission tomography. Chem Sci 2016; 7:1645-1652. [PMID: 28808536 PMCID: PMC5535067 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc04229a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is becoming more frequently used by medicinal chemists to facilitate the selection of the most promising lead compounds for further evaluation. For PET, this entails the preparation of 11C- or 18F-labeled drugs or radioligands. With the importance of chirality and fluorine substitution in drug development, chemists can be faced with the challenge of preparing enantiopure molecules featuring the 18F-tag on a stereogenic carbon. Asymmetric 18F-fluorination is an emerging field of research that provides an alternative to resolution or conventional SN2-based radiochemistry. To date, both transition metal complexes and organomediators have been successfully employed for 18F-incorporation at a stereogenic carbon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faye Buckingham
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory , 12 Mansfield Road , OX1 3UQ , Oxford , UK .
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory , 12 Mansfield Road , OX1 3UQ , Oxford , UK .
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29
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Zhao M, Ming L, Tang J, Zhao X. Regioselective Fluorination of 1-(2,2-Dibromovinyl)benzene Derivatives with Wet Tetra-n-butylammonium Fluoride: One-Pot Synthesis of (Z)-1-(2-Bromo-1-fluorovinyl)benzenes. Org Lett 2016; 18:416-9. [PMID: 26793995 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.5b03448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A direct fluorination of 1-(2,2-dibromovinyl)benzene derivatives using wet tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF·3H2O) as either a base or a fluorine source in toluene was accomplished, which provided (Z)-1-(2-bromo-1-fluorovinyl)benzene compounds in up to 81% yields with high regioselectivities. This reaction results strongly depend upon the reaction conditions. The mechanism of this reaction was investigated as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhu Zhao
- Shanghai Key Lab of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Department of Chemistry, Tongji University , 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Ling Ming
- Shanghai Key Lab of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Department of Chemistry, Tongji University , 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Jialiang Tang
- Shanghai Key Lab of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Department of Chemistry, Tongji University , 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoming Zhao
- Shanghai Key Lab of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Department of Chemistry, Tongji University , 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
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30
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Buckingham F, Kirjavainen AK, Forsback S, Krzyczmonik A, Keller T, Newington IM, Glaser M, Luthra SK, Solin O, Gouverneur V. Organomediated Enantioselective (18)F Fluorination for PET Applications. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:13366-9. [PMID: 26360631 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201506035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The first organomediated asymmetric (18)F fluorination has been accomplished using a chiral imidazolidinone and [(18)F]N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide. The method provides access to enantioenriched (18)F-labeled α-fluoroaldehydes (>90% ee), which are versatile chiral (18)F synthons for the synthesis of radiotracers. The utility of this process is demonstrated with the synthesis of the PET (positron emission tomography) tracer (2S,4S)-4-[(18)F]fluoroglutamic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faye Buckingham
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
| | - Anna K Kirjavainen
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Sarita Forsback
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Anna Krzyczmonik
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Thomas Keller
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Ian M Newington
- GE Healthcare, The Grove Centre, White Lion Road, Amersham, HP7 9LL (UK)
| | - Matthias Glaser
- GE Healthcare, The Grove Centre, White Lion Road, Amersham, HP7 9LL (UK)
| | - Sajinder K Luthra
- GE Healthcare, The Grove Centre, White Lion Road, Amersham, HP7 9LL (UK)
| | - Olof Solin
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK).
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31
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Buckingham F, Kirjavainen AK, Forsback S, Krzyczmonik A, Keller T, Newington IM, Glaser M, Luthra SK, Solin O, Gouverneur V. Organomediated Enantioselective
18
F Fluorination for PET Applications. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201506035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Faye Buckingham
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
| | - Anna K. Kirjavainen
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4–8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Sarita Forsback
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4–8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Anna Krzyczmonik
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4–8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Thomas Keller
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4–8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Ian M. Newington
- GE Healthcare, The Grove Centre, White Lion Road, Amersham, HP7 9LL (UK)
| | - Matthias Glaser
- GE Healthcare, The Grove Centre, White Lion Road, Amersham, HP7 9LL (UK)
| | - Sajinder K. Luthra
- GE Healthcare, The Grove Centre, White Lion Road, Amersham, HP7 9LL (UK)
| | - Olof Solin
- Turku PET Centre, Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Kiinamyllynkatu 4–8, 20520 Turku (Finland)
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
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32
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Zhang Q, Stockdale DP, Mixdorf JC, Topczewski JJ, Nguyen HM. Iridium-Catalyzed Enantioselective Fluorination of Racemic, Secondary Allylic Trichloroacetimidates. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:11912-5. [PMID: 26348569 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b07492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Ir-catalyzed enantioselective fluorination of racemic, branched allylic trichloroacetimidates with Et3N·3HF is a mild and efficient route for selective incorporation of fluoride ion into allylic systems. We herein describe the asymmetric fluorination of racemic, secondary allylic electrophiles with Et3N·3HF using a chiral-diene-ligated Ir complex. The methodology enables the formation of acyclic fluorine-containing compounds in good yields with excellent levels of asymmetric induction and overcomes the limitations previously associated with the enantioselective construction of secondary allylic fluorides bearing α-linear substituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - David P Stockdale
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Jason C Mixdorf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Joseph J Topczewski
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Hien M Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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33
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Engle KM, Pfeifer L, Pidgeon GW, Giuffredi GT, Thompson AL, Paton RS, Brown JM, Gouverneur V. Coordination diversity in hydrogen-bonded homoleptic fluoride-alcohol complexes modulates reactivity. Chem Sci 2015; 6:5293-5302. [PMID: 29449931 PMCID: PMC5669313 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc01812a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleophilic reactivity of fluoride ion is altered in the presence of hydrogen-bond donors, including alcohols. Relatively little is known about the coordination involved; to rectify this, the X-ray structures of fourteen novel fluoride-alcohol complexes with tetrabutylammonium as the counterion have been determined. The coordination number varies from two to four depending on the steric bulk of the alcohol and is closely linked to trends in reactivity. This diversity in coordination stoichiometry is unprecedented but significant, as it implies differences in the ability of the fluoride-alcohol complexes to dissociate in solution with release of a more active and/or selective fluoride source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keary M Engle
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - Lukas Pfeifer
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - George W Pidgeon
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - Guy T Giuffredi
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - Amber L Thompson
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - Robert S Paton
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - John M Brown
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- Chemistry Research Laboratory , Department of Chemistry , Oxford University , OX1 3TA , UK .
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34
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Khotavivattana T, Verhoog S, Tredwell M, Pfeifer L, Calderwood S, Wheelhouse K, Lee Collier T, Gouverneur V. (18)F-Labeling of Aryl-SCF3, -OCF3 and -OCHF2 with [(18)F]Fluoride. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:9991-5. [PMID: 26140357 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201504665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We report that halogenophilic silver(I) triflate permits halogen exchange (halex) nucleophilic (18)F-fluorination of aryl-OCHFCl, -OCF2Br and -SCF2Br precursors under mild conditions. This Ag(I)-mediated process allows for the first time access to a range of (18)F-labeled aryl-OCHF2, -OCF3 and -SCF3 derivatives, inclusive of [(18)F]riluzole. The (18)F-labeling of these medicinally important motifs expands the radiochemical space available for PET applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefan Verhoog
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
| | - Matthew Tredwell
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
| | - Lukas Pfeifer
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
| | - Samuel Calderwood
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK)
| | - Katherine Wheelhouse
- Medicines Discovery & Development, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY (UK)
| | | | - Véronique Gouverneur
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA (UK).
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35
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Khotavivattana T, Verhoog S, Tredwell M, Pfeifer L, Calderwood S, Wheelhouse K, Lee Collier T, Gouverneur V. 18F-Labeling of Aryl-SCF3, -OCF3and -OCHF2with [18F]Fluoride. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201504665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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36
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Abstract
Fluoroorganic compounds have attracted significant attention in various fields, such as pharmaceutical, agricultural chemistry, and materials science, as a result of their unique physical, chemical, and physiological properties. Consequently, extensive efforts have been devoted to the site-specific synthesis of organofluorine compounds. In recent years, transition-metal-mediated C-F bond formation has emerged as a powerful method for fabrication of these compounds. this Perspective mainly focuses on the most recent advances in transition-metal-assisted synthesis of alkyl fluorides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxi Lin
- Department of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China350108.
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37
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Champagne PA, Desroches J, Hamel JD, Vandamme M, Paquin JF. Monofluorination of Organic Compounds: 10 Years of Innovation. Chem Rev 2015; 115:9073-174. [PMID: 25854146 DOI: 10.1021/cr500706a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 677] [Impact Index Per Article: 75.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pier Alexandre Champagne
- Canada Research Chair in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, CGCC, PROTEO, Département de Chimie, Université Laval , 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Québec (QC), Canada G1V 0A6
| | - Justine Desroches
- Canada Research Chair in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, CGCC, PROTEO, Département de Chimie, Université Laval , 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Québec (QC), Canada G1V 0A6
| | - Jean-Denys Hamel
- Canada Research Chair in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, CGCC, PROTEO, Département de Chimie, Université Laval , 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Québec (QC), Canada G1V 0A6
| | - Mathilde Vandamme
- Canada Research Chair in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, CGCC, PROTEO, Département de Chimie, Université Laval , 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Québec (QC), Canada G1V 0A6
| | - Jean-François Paquin
- Canada Research Chair in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, CGCC, PROTEO, Département de Chimie, Université Laval , 1045 Avenue de la Médecine, Québec (QC), Canada G1V 0A6
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38
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Neumann CN, Ritter T. Late-stage fluorination: fancy novelty or useful tool? Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:3216-21. [PMID: 25653137 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201410288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Charming fluorine: This Essay examines the recent surge in late-stage fluorination reactions and outlines challenges that need to be overcome to increase the impact of modern fluorination methods on the synthesis of complex organofluorine compounds. It is outlined how an improved understanding of the bonding interactions of fluoride could lead to a new class of mild fluorinating reagents and a range of functional-group-tolerant reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze N Neumann
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA) http://www.chem.harvard.edu/groups/ritter/
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39
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Fluorierung in späten Synthesestadien: extravagante Neuheit oder nützliches Hilfsmittel? Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201410288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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40
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Nahra F, Patrick SR, Bello D, Brill M, Obled A, Cordes DB, Slawin AMZ, O'Hagan D, Nolan SP. Hydrofluorination of Alkynes Catalysed by Gold Bifluorides. ChemCatChem 2015; 7:240-244. [PMID: 26236406 PMCID: PMC4515107 DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201402891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
We report the synthesis of nine new N-heterocyclic carbene gold bifluoride complexes starting from the corresponding N-heterocyclic carbene gold hydroxides. A new methodology to access N,N'-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-ylidene gold(I) fluoride starting from N,N'-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-ylidene gold(I) hydroxide and readily available potassium bifluoride is also reported. These gold bifluorides were shown to be efficient catalysts in the hydrofluorination of symmetrical and unsymmetrical alkynes, thus affording fluorinated stilbene analogues and fluorovinyl thioethers in good to excellent yields with high stereo- and regioselectivity. The method is exploited further to access a fluorinated combretastatin analogue selectively in two steps starting from commercially available reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fady Nahra
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | - Scott R Patrick
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | - Davide Bello
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | - Marcel Brill
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | - Alan Obled
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | - David B Cordes
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | | | - David O'Hagan
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
| | - Steven P Nolan
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of St AndrewsSt Andrews, KY16 9ST (UK)
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41
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Brooks AF, Topczewski JJ, Ichiishi N, Sanford MS, Scott PJH. Late-stage [ 18F]Fluorination: New Solutions to Old Problems. Chem Sci 2014; 5:4545-4553. [PMID: 25379166 PMCID: PMC4217215 DOI: 10.1039/c4sc02099e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The last 2-3 years have seen numerous relationships develop between organometallic chemists, fluorine chemists and PET Centers around the world. These collaborations have led to the development of many new strategies for the late-stage introduction of fluorine-18 into complex bioactive molecules. In this perspective we highlight recent developments and key milestones since 2011.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen F. Brooks
- Department of Radiology, The University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor MI, USA
| | | | - Naoko Ichiishi
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor MI, USA
| | | | - Peter J. H. Scott
- Department of Radiology, The University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor MI, USA
- The Interdepartmental Program in Medicinal Chemistry The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor MI, USA
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42
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Takizawa S, Arteaga FA, Kishi K, Hirata S, Sasai H. Facile Regio- and Stereoselective Metal-Free Synthesis of All-Carbon Tetrasubstituted Alkenes Bearing a C(sp3)–F Unit via Dehydroxyfluorination of Morita–Baylis–Hillman (MBH) Adducts. Org Lett 2014; 16:4162-5. [DOI: 10.1021/ol501855m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shinobu Takizawa
- The Institute
of Scientific
and Industrial Research (ISIR), Osaka University, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki-shi, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Fernando Arteaga Arteaga
- The Institute
of Scientific
and Industrial Research (ISIR), Osaka University, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki-shi, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Kenta Kishi
- The Institute
of Scientific
and Industrial Research (ISIR), Osaka University, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki-shi, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Shuichi Hirata
- The Institute
of Scientific
and Industrial Research (ISIR), Osaka University, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki-shi, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Sasai
- The Institute
of Scientific
and Industrial Research (ISIR), Osaka University, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki-shi, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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43
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44
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Ichiishi N, Brooks A, Topczewski JJ, Rodnick ME, Sanford MS, Scott PJH. Copper-catalyzed [18F]fluorination of (mesityl)(aryl)iodonium salts. Org Lett 2014; 16:3224-7. [PMID: 24890658 PMCID: PMC4076000 DOI: 10.1021/ol501243g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A practical, rapid, and highly regioselective Cu-catalyzed radiofluorination of (mesityl)(aryl)iodonium salts is described. This protocol utilizes [(18)F]KF to access (18)F-labeled electron-rich, -neutral, and -deficient aryl fluorides under a single set of mild conditions. This methodology is applied to the synthesis of protected versions of two important radiotracers: 4-[(18)F]fluorophenylalanine and 6-[(18)F]fluoroDOPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Ichiishi
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Allen
F. Brooks
- Department
of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical
School, 1301 Catherine, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Joseph J. Topczewski
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Melissa E. Rodnick
- Department
of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical
School, 1301 Catherine, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Melanie S. Sanford
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Peter J. H. Scott
- Department
of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical
School, 1301 Catherine, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Interdepartmental
Program in Medicinal Chemistry, University
of Michigan, 428 Church
Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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45
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Arnold JS, Zhang Q, Nguyen HM. Transition-Metal-Catalyzed Allylic Substitutions of Trichloroacetimidates. European J Org Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201402097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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46
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Dang H, Mailig M, Lalic G. Mild copper-catalyzed fluorination of alkyl triflates with potassium fluoride. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:6473-6. [PMID: 24838874 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A chemoselective catalytic fluorination of alkyl triflates is described using potassium fluoride as a fluoride source. Excellent yields of the desired alkyl fluorides are obtained after one hour at 45 °C using 2 mol% of the copper catalyst. With 10 mol% of the catalyst, full conversion can be achieved in less than 10 minutes at 45 °C, and thus makes this procedure potentially suited for the preparation of (18) F-labeled PET probes. As a result of the mild reaction conditions, only the substitution products are observed with no evidence of common side reactions, such as elimination. Reported is a preliminary study of the reaction scope, which demonstrates that the fluorination can be performed in the presence of a wide range of functional groups. Evidence suggests an unusual role of the [IPrCuOTf] catalyst as a phase-transfer catalyst and points to [IPrCuF] as the active fluorinating reagent (IPr=1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-ylidene).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hester Dang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (USA)
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47
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Dang H, Mailig M, Lalic G. Mild Copper‐Catalyzed Fluorination of Alkyl Triflates with Potassium Fluoride. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201402238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hester Dang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (USA)
| | - Melrose Mailig
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (USA)
| | - Gojko Lalic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 (USA)
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48
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Graham TJA, Lambert RF, Ploessl K, Kung HF, Doyle AG. Enantioselective Radiosynthesis of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Tracers Containing [18F]Fluorohydrins. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:5291-4. [DOI: 10.1021/ja5025645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. A. Graham
- Department
of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - R. Frederick Lambert
- Department
of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Karl Ploessl
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Hank F. Kung
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Abigail G. Doyle
- Department
of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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49
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Zlatopolskiy BD, Krapf P, Richarz R, Frauendorf H, Mottaghy FM, Neumaier B. Synthesis of ¹⁸F-labelled β-lactams by using the Kinugasa reaction. Chemistry 2014; 20:4697-703. [PMID: 24615842 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201304056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Owing to their broad spectrum of biological activities and low toxicity, β-lactams are attractive lead structures for the design of novel molecular probes. However, the synthesis of positron emission tomography (PET)-isotope-labelled β-lactams has not yet been reported. Herein, we describe the simple preparation of radiofluorinated β-lactams by using the fast Kinugasa reaction between (18)F-labelled nitrone [(18)F]-1 and alkynes of different reactivity. Additionally, (18)F-labelled fused β-lactams were obtained through the reaction of a cyclic nitrone 7 with radiofluorinated alkynes [(18)F]-6 a,b. Radiochemical yields of the Kinugasa reaction products could be significantly increased by the use of different Cu(I) ligands, which additionally allowed a reduction in the amount of precursor and/or reaction time. Model radiofluorinated β-lactam-peptide and protein conjugates ([(18)F]-10 and (18)F-labelled BSA conjugate) were efficiently obtained in high yield under mild conditions (aq. MeCN, ambient temperature) within a short reaction time, demonstrating the suitability of the developed method for radiolabelling of sensitive molecules such as biopolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris D Zlatopolskiy
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 62, 50937 Cologne (Germany), Fax: (+49) 221-478-86851; Max Planck Institute of Neurological Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne (Germany); Clinic of Nuclear Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen (Germany)
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50
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Katcher MH, Norrby PO, Doyle AG. Mechanistic Investigations of Palladium-Catalyzed Allylic Fluorination. Organometallics 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/om401240p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew H. Katcher
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Per-Ola Norrby
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Kemigården 4, #8076, SE-412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
- Pharmaceutical Development, Global Medicines
Development, AstraZeneca, Pepparedsleden 1, SE-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Abigail G. Doyle
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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