Surface functionalized nanomaterial systems for targeted therapy of endocrine related tumors: a review of recent advancements

The application of multidisciplinary techniques in the management of endocrine-related cancers is crucial for harnessing the advantages of multiple disciplines and their coordinated efforts in eliminating tumors. Due to the malignant characteristics of cancer cells, they possess the capacity to develop resistance to traditional treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Nevertheless, despite diligent endeavors to enhance the prediction of outcomes, the overall survival rate for individuals afflicted with endocrine-related malignancy remains quite miserable. Hence, it is imperative to investigate innovative therapy strategies. The latest advancements in therapeutic tactics have offered novel approaches for the therapy of various endocrine tumors. This paper examines the advancements in nano-drug delivery techniques and the utilization of nanomaterials for precise cancer cures through targeted therapy. This review provides a thorough analysis of the potential of combined drug delivery strategies in the treatment of thyroid cancer, adrenal gland tumors, and pancreatic cancer. The objective of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of current therapeutic approaches, stimulate the development of new drug DDS, and improve the effectiveness of treatment for patients with these diseases. The intracellular uptake of pharmaceuticals into cancer cells can be significantly improved through the implantation of synthetic or natural substances into nanoparticles, resulting in a substantial reduction in the development of endocrine malignancies.

Surface engineered multifunctional nano-systems for localised drug delivery against thyroid cancer: A review of current practices

Thyroid cancer, the most prevalent cancer of the endocrine system and cervical region, has experienced a significant increase in incidence over recent decades. Nanomedicine has fundamentally revolutionized cancer treatment, particularly through the development of multifunctional nano-therapeutics. The progress in this field has been facilitated by the distinctive properties of nanomaterials, such as their capacity to perform several functions, be modified, and offer various detection methods. These features allow for non-invasive and practical diagnostic techniques through versatile imaging. Surface engineering plays a pivotal role in the design of multifunctional nano-systems for localized drug delivery against thyroid cancer. Nano-systems can be customized via surface modification techniques, such as functionalization with targeting ligands and inclusion of therapeutic drugs. This customization allows the nano-systems to specifically target cancer cells while reducing the impact on non-target cells. As a result, bovine serum albumin-coated nanostructures have emerged as powerful diagnostic and targeting nanosystems for thyroid cancer. This targeted strategy enhances the effectiveness of cancer treatment while reducing overall body toxicity. This comprehensive review aims to provide an extensive overview of the latest advancements in surface-engineered nanoparticle-based approaches for both diagnosing and treating thyroid cancer. It highlights the promising research endeavors aimed at creating novel and effective multifunctional nanomedicine for localized delivery to thyroid cancer sites. The review examines different nanomedicines that have been developed for cancer treatment and diagnosis. It also analyzes the current trends, future possibilities, and obstacles in this rapidly advancing sector. By synthesizing the current state of knowledge on surface-engineered multifunctional nano-systems, this review contributes to a better understanding of their potential applications in thyroid cancer treatment and paves the way for future research directions in this promising field of nanomedicine.

Current Application of Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems to the Treatment of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinomas

Anaplastic thyroid carcinomas (ATCs) are a rare subtype of thyroid cancers with a low incidence but extremely high invasiveness and fatality. The treatment of ATCs is very challenging, and currently, a comprehensive individualized therapeutic strategy involving surgery, radiotherapy (RT), chemotherapy, BRAF/MEK inhibitors (BRAFi/MEKi) and immunotherapy is preferred. For ATC patients in stage IVA/IVB, a surgery-based comprehensive strategy may provide survival benefits. Unfortunately, ATC patients in IVC stage barely get benefits from the current treatment. Recently, nanoparticle delivery of siRNAs, targeted drugs, cytotoxic drugs, photosensitizers and other agents is considered as a promising anti-cancer treatment. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems have been mainly explored in the treatment of differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). With the rapid development of drug delivery techniques and nanomaterials, using hybrid nanoparticles as the drug carrier to deliver siRNAs, targeted drugs, immune drugs, chemotherapy drugs and phototherapy drugs to ATC patients have become a hot research field. This review aims to describe latest findings of nanoparticle drug delivery systems in the treatment of ATCs, thus providing references for the further analyses.

Redox/pH-responsive hollow manganese dioxide nanoparticles for thyroid cancer treatment

The nano drug delivery system MnO2/CDDP@PDA-Cy5.5 was synthesized in this study to increase the efficacy of Cisplatin (CDDP) on thyroid cancer and alleviate the damage to normal tissue, with the aim of enhancing the anti-cancer efficacy, increasing the drug load, optimizing the control of drug release, and alleviating the systemic toxicity arising from drug off-target. On that basis, high efficacy and low toxicity win-win can be obtained. In this study, hollow manganese dioxide nanoparticles (MnO2 NPs) were prepared based on the template method. CDDP was loaded into the hollow cavity and then modified with polydopamine (PDA) and Cy5.5, with the aim of obtaining the nano-drug loading system MnO2/CDDP@PDA-Cy5.5 NPs. The NPs precisely delivered drugs by intelligently responding to the tumor microenvironment (TME). As indicated by the release curves, the NPs release CDDP rapidly by inducing the decomposition of PDA and MnO2 under acidic or redox conditions, and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent Mn2+ was generated. The results of the in vivo MRI studies suggested that T1 contrast at the tumor site was notably enhanced under the Enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. After the intravenous administration, the effective tumor accumulation exhibited by the NPs was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging as a function of time. Compared with free CDDP, the in vivo therapeutic effect was remarkably increased. As indicated by the above-described results, MnO2/CDDP@PDA-Cy5.5 NPs is a drug delivery system exhibiting diagnostic and therapeutic functions.

Nanoparticles: Promising Auxiliary Agents for Diagnosis and Therapy of Thyroid Cancers

Simple Summary

Thyroid cancer (TC) is rare relative to cancers of many other organs (breast, prostate, lung, and colon). The majority of TCs are differentiated tumors that are relatively easy to treat and have a good prognosis. However, for anaplastic TC, a rapidly growing and aggressive tumor, treatment is suboptimal because the effective drugs cause severe adverse effects. Drug delivery by nanocarriers can improve treatment by reducing side effects. This can either be mediated through better retention in the tumor tissue due to size (passive targeting) or through the attachment of specific molecules that zero in on the cancer cells (active targeting). Nanoparticles are already used for diagnosis and imaging of TC. For unresectable anaplastic TC, nanoparticle-based treatments, less suitable for deeply located cancers, could be useful, based on low-intensity focused ultrasound and near-infrared irradiation. All potential applications of nanoparticles in TC are still in the preclinical phase.

Abstract

Cancers of the endocrine system are rare. The majority are not highly malignant tumors. Thyroid cancer (TC) is the most common endocrine cancer, with differentiated papillary and follicular tumors occurring more frequently than the more aggressive poorly differentiated and anaplastic TC. Nanoparticles (NP) (mainly mesoporous silica, gold, carbon, or liposomes) have been developed to improve the detection of biomarkers and routine laboratory parameters (e.g., thyroid stimulating hormone, thyroglobulin, and calcitonin), tumor imaging, and drug delivery in TC. The majority of drug-loaded nanocarriers to be used for treatment was developed for anaplastic tumors because current treatments are suboptimal. Further, doxorubicin, sorafenib, and gemcitabine treatment can be improved by nanotherapy due to decreased adverse effects. Selective delivery of retinoic acid to TC cells might improve the re-differentiation of de-differentiated TC. The use of carbon NPs for the prevention of parathyroid damage during TC surgery does not show a clear benefit. Certain technologies less suitable for the treatment of deeply located cancers may have some potential for unresectable anaplastic carcinomas, namely those based on low-intensity focused ultrasound and near-infrared irradiation. Although some of these approaches yielded promising results in animal studies, results from clinical trials are currently lacking.

Novel therapeutic options for radioiodine-refractory thyroid cancer: redifferentiation and beyond

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Radioiodine-refractory thyroid cancers represent the main cause of thyroid cancer-related death. At present, targeted therapies with multikinase inhibitors represent a unique therapeutic tool, though they have limited benefit on patient survival and severe drug-associated adverse events. This review summarizes current treatment strategies for radioiodine-refractory thyroid cancer and focuses on novel approaches to redifferentiate thyroid cancer cells to restore responsiveness to radioiodine administration.

RECENT FINDINGS

We summarize and discuss recent clinical trial findings and early data from real-life experiences with multikinase-inhibiting drugs. Possible alternative strategies to traditional redifferentiation are also discussed.

SUMMARY

The current review focuses primarily on the major advancements in the knowledge of the pathophysiology of iodine transport and metabolism and the genetic and epigenetic alterations occurring in thyroid neoplasia as described using preclinical models. Results of clinical studies employing new compounds to induce thyroid cancer cell redifferentiation by acting against specific molecular targets are also discussed. Finally, we describe the current scenario emerging from such findings as well as future perspectives.

The Molecular Function and Clinical Role of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Receptor in Cancer Cells

The thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and its cognate receptor (TSHR) are of crucial importance for thyrocytes to proliferate and exert their functions. Although TSHR is predominantly expressed in thyrocytes, several studies have revealed that functional TSHR can also be detected in many extra-thyroid tissues, such as primary ovarian and hepatic tissues as well as their corresponding malignancies. Recent advances in cancer biology further raise the possibility of utilizing TSH and/or TSHR as a therapeutic target or as an informative index to predict treatment responses in cancer patients. The TSH/TSHR cascade has been considered a pivotal modulator for carcinogenesis and/or tumor progression in these cancers. TSHR belongs to a sub-group of family A G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which activate a bundle of well-defined signaling transduction pathways to enhance cell renewal in response to external stimuli. In this review, recent findings regarding the molecular basis of TSH/TSHR functions in either thyroid or extra-thyroid tissues and the potential of directly targeting TSHR as an anticancer strategy are summarized and discussed.

Novel iodinated gold nanoclusters for precise diagnosis of thyroid cancer

As the most common endocrine malignancy with a high incidence, thyroid cancer lacks a dual-modal imaging method for precise diagnosis. An accurate and multimodal imaging system is pivotal to solve this problem. Herein, dual-modality fluorescence/Computed Tomography (CT) iodinated gold nanoclusters for malignant thyroid cancer visualization have been recently fabricated. In this study, innovative iodinated gold nanoclusters (AuNCs@BSA-I) were synthesized via Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and chloramine-T. AuNCs@BSA-I not only possess an ultra-small size and brilliant biocompatibility but also exhibit excellent fluorescence/CT imaging properties. Particularly with regard to CT imaging properties, AuNCs@BSA-I rival the clinical CT contrast medium. And the fluorescence emission spectrum of AuNCs@BSA-I falls in the near infrared region (NIR). For further translational application in medicine, we established an orthotopic human thyroid cancer patient tissue derived xenograft (PDX) mouse model, highly close to the actual human thyroid cancer. The results unveil that AuNCs@BSA-I exert sensitive and accurate diagnosis characteristics. To be more specific, the AuNCs@BSA-I fluorescent/CT signals in the thyroid tumor represent characteristics of 'slow in fast out', compared to those in the normal thyroid. Moreover, AuNCs@BSA-I could distinguish minimal thyroid cancer, as small as 2 mm³. Therefore, AuNCs@BSA-I appear to be a promising nanoprobe which could be applied to preclinical medicine.