Construction of alkyl-substituted pentaphosphido ligands in the coordination sphere of cobalt

Functionalization of Tetraphosphido Ligands by Heterocumulenes

Although numerous polyphosphido complexes have been accessed through the transition-metal-mediated activation and functionalization of white phosphorus (P4), the selective functionalization of the resulting polyphosphorus ligands in these compounds remains underdeveloped. In this study, we explore the reactions between cyclotetraphosphido cobalt complexes and heterocumulenes, leading to functionalized P4 ligands. Specifically, the reaction of carbon disulfide (CS2) with [K(18c-6)][(Ar*BIAN)Co(η4-P4)] ([K(18c-6)]1, 18c-6 = [18]crown-6) affords the adduct [K(18c-6)][(Ar*BIAN)Co(η3:η1-P4CS2)] ([K(18c-6)]3), in which CS2 is attached to a single phosphorus atom (Ar* = 2,6-dibenzhydryl-4-isopropylphenyl, BIAN = 1,2-bis(arylimino)acenaphthene diimine). In contrast, the insertion of bis(trimethylsilyl)sulfur diimide S(NSiMe3)2 into a P-P bond of [K(18c-6)]1 yields [K(18c-6)][(Ar*BIAN)Co(η3:η1-P4SN2(SiMe3)2)] (K(18c-6)]4). This salt further reacts with Me3SiCl to form [(Ar*BIAN)Co(η3:η1-P4SN2(SiMe3)3] (5), featuring a rare azatetraphosphole ligand. Moreover, treatment of the previously reported complex [(Ar*BIAN)Co(η3:η1-P4C(O)tBu)] (2) with isothiocyanates results in P-C bond insertion, yielding [(Ar*BIAN)Co(η3:η1-P4C(S)N(R)C(O)tBu)] (6a,b; R = Cy, Ph).

Low-Valent Transition Metalate Anions in Synthesis, Small Molecule Activation, and Catalysis

This review surveys the synthesis and reactivity of low-oxidation state metalate anions of the d-block elements, with an emphasis on contributions reported between 2006 and 2022. Although the field has a long and rich history, the chemistry of transition metalate anions has been greatly enhanced in the last 15 years by the application of advanced concepts in complex synthesis and ligand design. In recent years, the potential of highly reactive metalate complexes in the fields of small molecule activation and homogeneous catalysis has become increasingly evident. Consequently, exciting applications in small molecule activation have been developed, including in catalytic transformations. This article intends to guide the reader through the fascinating world of low-valent transition metalates. The first part of the review describes the synthesis and reactivity of d-block metalates stabilized by an assortment of ligand frameworks, including carbonyls, isocyanides, alkenes and polyarenes, phosphines and phosphorus heterocycles, amides, and redox-active nitrogen-based ligands. Thereby, the reader will be familiarized with the impact of different ligand types on the physical and chemical properties of metalates. In addition, ion-pairing interactions and metal-metal bonding may have a dramatic influence on metalate structures and reactivities. The complex ramifications of these effects are examined in a separate section. The second part of the review is devoted to the reactivity of the metalates toward small inorganic molecules such as H2, N2, CO, CO2, P4 and related species. It is shown that the use of highly electron-rich and reactive metalates in small molecule activation translates into impressive catalytic properties in the hydrogenation of organic molecules and the reduction of N2, CO, and CO2. The results discussed in this review illustrate that the potential of transition metalate anions is increasingly being tapped for challenging catalytic processes with relevance to organic synthesis and energy conversion. Therefore, it is hoped that this review will serve as a useful resource to inspire further developments in this dynamic research field.

Cobalt-Mediated [3+1] Fragmentation of White Phosphorus: Access to Acylcyanophosphanides

Despite the accessibility of numerous transition metal polyphosphido complexes through transition-metal-mediated activation of white phosphorus, the targeted functionalization of Pn ligands to obtain functional monophosphorus species remains challenging. In this study, we introduce a new [3+1] fragmentation procedure for cyclo-P4 ligands, leading to the discovery of acylcyanophosphanides and -phosphines. Treatment of the complex [K(18c-6)][(Ar*BIAN)Co(η4 -P4 )] ([K(18c-6)]3, 18c-6=[18]crown-6, Ar*=2,6-dibenzhydryl-4-isopropylphenyl, BIAN=1,2-bis(arylimino)acenaphthene diimine) with acyl chlorides results in the formation of acylated tetraphosphido complexes [(Ar*BIAN)Co(η4 -P4 C(O)R)] (R=tBu, Cy, 1-Ad, Ph; 4 a-d). Subsequent reactions of 4 a-d with cyanide salts yield acylated cyanophosphanides [RC(O)PCN]- (9 a-d- ) and the cyclo-P3 cobaltate anion [(Ar*BIAN)Co(η3 -P3 )(CN)]- (8- ). Further reactions of 4 a-d with trimethylsilyl cyanide (Me3 SiCN) and isocyanides provide insight into a plausible mechanism of this [3+1] fragmentation reaction, as these reagents partially displace the P4 C(O)R ligand from the cobalt center. Several potential intermediates of the [3+1] fragmentation were characterized. Additionally, the introduction of a second acyl substituent was achieved by treating [K(18c-6)]9b with CyC(O)Cl, resulting in the first bis(acyl)monocyanophosphine (CyC(O))2 PCN (10).

Formation of a Hexaphosphido Cobalt Complex through P-P Condensation

The reaction between diphosphorus derivatives [(Cl ImDipp )P2 (Dipp)]OTf (1[OTf]) and [(Cl ImDipp )P2 (Dipp)Cl] (1[Cl]) with the cyclotetraphosphido cobalt complex [K(18c-6)][(PHDI)Co(η4 -cyclo-P4 )] (2) leads to the formation of complex [(PHDI)Co{η4 -cyclo-P6 (Dipp)(Cl ImDipp )}] (3), which features an unusual hexaphosphido ligand [Cl ImDipp =4,5-dichloro-1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-yl, Dipp=2,6-diisopropylphenyl, 18c-6=18-crown-6, PHDI=bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)phenanthrene-9,10-diimine]. Complex 3 was obtained as a crystalline material with a moderate yield at low temperature. Upon exposure to ambient temperature, compound 3 slowly transforms into two other compounds, [K(18c-6)][(PHDI)Co(η4 -P7 Dipp)] (4) and [(PHDI)Co{cyclo-P5 (Cl ImDipp )}] (5). The novel complexes 3-5 were characterized using multinuclear NMR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. To shed light on the formation of these compounds, a proposed mechanism based on 31 P NMR monitoring studies is presented.

Ring expansion vs. addition - reactivity of a cyclo-P4 complex towards pnictogenium cations

A systematic study on the reactivity of the cyclo-P4 complexes [CpRTa(CO)2(η4-P4)] towards pnictogenium cations results in the formation of functionalised interpnictogen cations. Phosphenium ions insert into one of the P-P bonds to give ring-expanded cyclo-P5R2 products. In contrast, an arsenium-functionalised P4AsCy2 ligand displays an interesting borderline case between ring expansion and coordination, while stibenium cations afford addition products. Tuning of the steric and electronic properties of the stibenium ion shows a drastic influence on the reaction outcome.

Reactivity of E4 (E4 =P4 , As4 , AsP3 ) towards Low-Valent Al(I) and Ga(I) Compounds

The reactivity of yellow arsenic and the interpnictogen compound AsP₃ towards low-valent group 13 compounds was investigated. The reactions of [LAl] (1, L=[{N(C₆ H₃ ⁱ Pr₂ -2,6)C(Me)}₂ CH]^- ) with As₄ and AsP₃ lead to [(LAl)₂ (μ,η^1:1:1:1 -E₄ )] (E₄ =As₄ (3 b), AsP₃ (3 c)) by insertion of two fragments [LAl] into two of the six E-E edges of the E₄ tetrahedra. Furthermore, the reaction of [LGa] (2) with E₄ afforded [LGa(η^1:1 -E₄ )] (E₄ =As₄ (4 b), AsP₃ (4 c)). In these compounds, only one E-E bond of the E₄ tetrahedra was cleaved. These compounds represent the first examples of the conversion of yellow arsenic and AsP₃ , respectively, with group 13 compounds. Furthermore, the reactivity of the gallium complexes towards unsaturated transition metal units or polypnictogen (E_n ) ligand complexes was investigated. This leads to the heterobimetallic compounds [(LGa)(μ,η^2:1:1 -P₄ )(LNi)] (5 a), [(Cp'''Co)(μ,η^4:1:1 -E₄ )(LGa)] (E=P (6 a), As (6 b), Cp'''=η⁵ -C₅ H₂ ^t Bu₃ ) and [(Cp'''Ni)(η^3:1:1 -E₃ )(LGa)] (E=P (7 a), As (7 b)), which combine two different ligand systems in one complex (nacnac and Cp) as well as two different types of metals (main group and transition metals). The products were characterized by crystallographic and spectroscopic methods.

Rich redox-activity and solvatochromism in a family of heteroleptic cobalt complexes

The combination of redox-active metals with redox-active ligands can lead to interesting charge transfer behaviours, including valence tautomerism and solvatochromism. With the aim of investigating a relatively underexplored redox-active metal/redox-active ligand combination, complexes [Co^II(acac)₂(X-BIAN)] (acac^- = acetylacetonate; X-BIAN = bis(4-X-phenyl)iminoacenaphthene; 1: X = -CF₃, 2: X = -Cl, 3: X = -H, 4: X = -Me) and [Co^III(acac)₂(Me-BIAN)]⁺ (5+) have been synthesised and characterised. At all temperatures investigated, and in both the solid and solution state, complexes 1-4 exist in a Co^II-BIAN⁰ charge distribution, while 5+ adopts a Co^III-BIAN⁰ charge distribution. In the case of 1-4, the potential Co^III-BIAN˙^- valence tautomer is inaccesible; the energy ordering between the ground Co^II-BIAN⁰ state and the excited Co^III-BIAN˙^- state must be reversed in order for an entropically driven interconversion to be possible. The energy gap between the states can be monitored via metal-to-ligand charge transfer bands in the visible region. We demonstrate tuning of this energy gap by varying the electronic properties of the BIAN ligand, as well as by controlling the molecular environment through solvent choice. Solvatochromic analysis, in combination with crystallographic evidence, allows elucidation of the specific solvent-solute interactions that govern the molecular behaviour of 1-4, affording insights that can inform potential future applications in sensing and switching.

Substituted aromatic pentaphosphole ligands - a journey across the p-block

The functionalization of pentaphosphaferrocene [Cp*Fe(η5-P5)] (1) with cationic group 13-17 electrophiles is shown to be a general synthetic strategy towards P-E bond formation of unprecedented diversity. The products of these reactions are dinuclear [{Cp*Fe}2{μ,η5:5-(P5)2EX2}][TEF] (EX2 = BBr2 (2), GaI2 (3), [TEF]- = [Al{OC(CF3)3}4]-) or mononuclear [Cp*Fe(η5-P5E)][X] (E = CH2Ph (4), CHPh2 (5), SiHPh2 (6), AsCy2 (7), SePh (9), TeMes (10), Cl (11), Br (12), I (13)) complexes of hetero-bis-pentaphosphole ((cyclo-P5)2R) or hetero-pentaphosphole ligands (cyclo-P5R), the aromatic all-phosphorus analogs of prototypical cyclopentadienes. Further, modifying the steric and electronic properties of the electrophile has a drastic impact on its reactivity and leads to the formation of [Cp*Fe(μ,η5:2-P5)SbICp'''][TEF] (8) which possesses a triple-decker-like structure. X-ray crystallographic characterization reveals the slightly twisted conformation of the cyclo-P5R ligands in these compounds and multinuclear NMR spectroscopy confirms their integrity in solution. DFT calculations shed light on the bonding situation of these compounds and confirm the aromatic character of the pentaphosphole ligands on a journey across the p-block.

Synthesis and Multiple Subsequent Reactivity of Anionic cyclo-E3 Ligand Complexes (E=P, As)

A synthetic pathway for the synthesis of novel anionic sandwich complexes with a cyclo-E3 (E=P, As) ligand as an end deck was developed giving [Cp'''Co(η3 -E3 )]- (Cp'''=1,2,4-tri-tert-butylcyclopentadienyl, E=P ([5]), As ([6])) in good yields suitable for further reactivity studies. In the reaction with the chlorophosphanes R2 PCl (R=Ph, Cy, t Bu), neutral complexes with a disubstituted cyclo-E3 P (E=P, As) ligand in [Cp'''Co(η3 -E3 PR2 )] (E=P (7 a-c), As (9 a-c)) were obtained. These compounds can be partially or completely converted into complexes with a cyclo-E3 (E=P, As) ligand with an exocyclic {PR2 } unit in [Cp'''Co(η2 :η1 -E3 PR2 )] (E=P (8 a-c), As (10 a-c)). Additionally, the insertion of the chlorosilylene [LSiCl] (L=(t BuN)2 CPh) into the cyclo-E3 ligand of [5] and [6] was achieved and the novel heteroatomic complexes [Cp'''Co(η3 -E3 SiL)] (E=P (11), As (12)) could be isolated. The reaction pathway was elucidated by DFT calculations.

Transition-Metal-Mediated Functionalization of White Phosphorus

Recently there has been great interest in the reactivity of transition-metal (TM) centers towards white phosphorus (P4 ). This has ultimately been motivated by a desire to find TM-mediated alternatives to the current industrial routes used to transform P4 into myriad useful P-containing products, which are typically indirect, wasteful, and highly hazardous. Such a TM-mediated process can be divided into two steps: activation of P4 to generate a polyphosphorus complex TM-Pn , and subsequent functionalization of this complex to release the desired phosphorus-containing product. The former step has by now become well established, allowing the isolation of many different TM-Pn products. In contrast, productive functionalization of these complexes has proven extremely challenging and has been achieved only in a relative handful of cases. In this review we provide a comprehensive summary of successful TM-Pn functionalization reactions, where TM-Pn must be accessible by reaction of a TM precursor with P4 . We hope that this will provide a useful resource for continuing efforts that are working towards this highly challenging goal of modern synthetic chemistry.

From a P4 butterfly scaffold to cyclo- and catena-P4 units

The reactivity of [{Cp'''Fe(CO)2}2(μ,η1 : 1-P4)] (1) towards half-sandwich complexes of Ru(ii), Rh(iii), and Ir(iii) is studied. The coordination of these Lewis acids leads to a rearrangement of the P4 butterfly unit to form complexes with either an aromatic cyclo-P4R2 unit (R = Cp'''Fe(CO)2) or a catena-tetraphosphaene entity.

Stabilization of Pentaphospholes as η5 -Coordinating Ligands

Electrophilic functionalisation of [Cp*Fe(η5 -P5 )] (1) yields the first transition-metal complexes of pentaphospholes (cyclo-P5 R). Silylation of 1 with [(Et3 Si)2 (μ-H)][B(C6 F5 )4 ] leads to the ionic species [Cp*Fe(η5 -P5 SiEt3 )][B(C6 F5 )4 ] (2), whose subsequent reaction with H2 O yields the parent compound [Cp*Fe(η5 -P5 H)][B(C6 F5 )4 ] (3). The synthesis of a carbon-substituted derivative [Cp*Fe(η5 -P5 Me)][X] ([X]- =[FB(C6 F5 )3 ]- (4 a), [B(C6 F5 )4 ]- (4 b)) is achieved by methylation of 1 employing [Me3 O][BF4 ] and B(C6 F5 )3 or a combination of MeOTf and [Li(OEt2 )2 ][B(C6 F5 )4 ]. The structural characterisation of these compounds reveals a slight envelope structure for the cyclo-P5 R ligand. Detailed NMR-spectroscopic studies suggest a highly dynamic behaviour and thus a distinct lability for 2 and 3 in solution. DFT calculations shed light on the electronic structure and bonding situation of this unprecedented class of compounds.

Cationic Functionalisation by Phosphenium Ion Insertion

The reaction of [Cp'''Ni(η3 -P3 )] (1) with in situ generated phosphenium ions [RR'P]+ yields the unprecedented polyphosphorus cations of the type [Cp'''Ni(η3 -P4 R2 )][X] (R=Ph (2 a), Mes (2 b), Cy (2 c), 2,2'-biphen (2 d), Me (2 e); [X]- =[OTf]- , [SbF6 ]- , [GaCl4 ]- , [BArF ]- , [TEF]- ) and [Cp'''Ni(η3 -P4 RCl)][TEF] (R=Ph (2 f), tBu (2 g)). In the reaction of 1 with [Br2 P]+ , an analogous compound is observed only as an intermediate and the final product is an unexpected dinuclear complex [{Cp'''Ni}2 (μ,η3 :η1 :η1 -P4 Br3 )][TEF] (3 a). A similar product [{Cp'''Ni}2 (μ,η3 :η1 :η1 -P4 (2,2'-biphen)Cl)][GaCl4 ] (3 b) is obtained, when 2 d[GaCl4 ] is kept in solution for prolonged times. Although the central structural motif of 2 a-g consists of a "butterfly-like" folded P4 ring attached to a {Cp'''Ni} fragment, the structures of 3 a and 3 b exhibit a unique asymmetrically substituted and distorted P4 chain stabilised by two {Cp'''Ni} fragments. Additional DFT calculations shed light on the reaction pathway for the formation of 2 a-2 g and the bonding situation in 3 a.

[3+2] Fragmentation of a Pentaphosphido Ligand by Cyanide

The activation of white phosphorus (P4 ) by transition-metal complexes has been studied for several decades, but the functionalization and release of the resulting (organo)phosphorus ligands has rarely been achieved. Herein we describe the formation of rare diphosphan-1-ide anions from a P5 ligand by treatment with cyanide. Cobalt diorganopentaphosphido complexes have been synthesized by a stepwise reaction sequence involving a low-valent diimine cobalt complex, white phosphorus, and diorganochlorophosphanes. The reactions of the complexes with tetraalkylammonium or potassium cyanide afford a cyclotriphosphido cobaltate anion 5 and 1-cyanodiphosphan-1-ide anions [R2 PPCN]- (6-R). The molecular structure of a related product 7 suggests a novel reaction mechanism, where coordination of the cyanide anion to the cobalt center induces a ligand rearrangement. This is followed by nucleophilic attack of a second cyanide anion at a phosphorus atom and release of the P2 fragment.

Functionalization of Pentaphosphorus Cations by Complexation

The chemistry of polyphosphorus cations has rapidly developed in recent years, but their coordination behavior has remained mostly unexplored. Herein, we describe the reactivity of [P5 R2 ]+ cations with cyclopentadienyl metal complexes. The reaction of [CpAr Fe(μ-Br)]2 (CpAr =C5 (C6 H4 -4-Et)5 ) with [P5 R2 ][GaCl4 ] (R=iPr and 2,4,6-Me3 C6 H2 (Mes)) afforded bicyclo[1.1.0]pentaphosphanes (1-R, R=iPr and Mes), showing an unsymmetric "butterfly" structure. The same products 1-R were formed from K[CpAr ] and [P5 R2 ][GaCl4 ]. The cationic complexes [CpAr Co(η4 -P5 R2 )][GaCl4 ] (2-R[GaCl4 ], R=iPr and Cy) and [(CpAr Ni)2 (η3:3 -P5 R2 )][GaCl4 ] (3-R[GaCl4 ]) were obtained from [P5 R2 ][GaCl4 ] and [CpAr M(μ-Br)]2 (M=Co and Ni) as well as by using low-valent "CpAr MI " sources. Anion metathesis of 2-R[GaCl4 ] and 3-R[GaCl4 ] was achieved with Na[BArF24 ]. The P5 framework of the resulting salts 2-R[BArF24 ] can be further functionalized with nucleophiles. Thus reactions with [Et4 N]X (X=CN and Cl) give unprecedented cyano- and chloro-functionalized complexes, while organo-functionalization was achieved with CyMgCl.

Direct synthesis of an anionic 13-vertex closo-cobaltacarborane cluster

Reaction of 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)-ortho-carborane (L) with [K(thf){(^MesBIAN)Co(η⁴-cod)}] (1, ^MesBIAN = bis(mesityliminoace-naphthene)diimine, cod = 1,5-cyclooctadiene) affords an anionic 13-vertex closo-cobaltacarborane cluster (2) in one step. The mechanism of this transformation has been studied by experimental and quantum chemical techniques, which suggest that a series of outer-sphere electron transfer and isomerisation processes occurs. This work shows that low-valent metalate anions are promising reagents for the synthesis of anionic metallacarborane clusters.

Ring Expansions of Nonpolar Polyphosphorus Rings

The reaction of the phosphinidene complex [Cp*P{W(CO)₅ }₂ ] (1 a) (Cp*=C₅ Me₅ ) with the anionic cyclo-P_n ligand complex [(η³ -P₃ )Nb(ODipp)₃ ]^- (2, Dipp=2,6-diisopropylphenyl) resulted in the formation of [{W(CO)₅ }₂ {μ₃ ,η^3:1:1 -P₄ Cp*}Nb(ODipp)₃ ]^- (3), which represents an unprecedented example of a ring expansion of a polyphosphorus-ligand complex initiated by a phosphinidene complex. Furthermore, the reaction of the pnictinidene complexes [Cp*E{W(CO)₅ }₂ ] (E=P: 1 a, As: 1 b) with the neutral complex [Cp'''Co(η⁴ -P₄ )] (Cp'''=1,2,4-tBu₃ C₅ H₂ ) led to a cyclo-P₄ E ring (E=P, As) through the insertion of the pentel atom into the cyclo-P₄ ligand. Starting from 1 a, the two isomers [Cp'''Co(μ₃ ,η^4:1:1 -P₅ Cp*){W(CO)₅ }₂ ] (5 a,b), and from 1 b, the three isomers [Cp'''Co(μ₃ ,η^4:1:1 -AsP₄ Cp*){W(CO)₅ }₂ ] (6 a-c) with unprecedented cyclo-P₄ E ligands (E=P, As) were isolated. The complexes 6 a-c represent unique examples of ring expansions which lead to new mixed five-membered cyclo-P₄ As ligands. The possible reaction pathways for the formation of 5 a,b and 6 a-c were investigated by a combination of temperature-dependent ³¹ P{¹ H} NMR studies and DFT calculations.