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Lee KK, Celt N, Ardoña HAM. Looking both ways: Electroactive biomaterials with bidirectional implications for dynamic cell-material crosstalk. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2024; 5:021303. [PMID: 38736681 PMCID: PMC11087870 DOI: 10.1063/5.0181222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Cells exist in natural, dynamic microenvironmental niches that facilitate biological responses to external physicochemical cues such as mechanical and electrical stimuli. For excitable cells, exogenous electrical cues are of interest due to their ability to stimulate or regulate cellular behavior via cascade signaling involving ion channels, gap junctions, and integrin receptors across the membrane. In recent years, conductive biomaterials have been demonstrated to influence or record these electrosensitive biological processes whereby the primary design criterion is to achieve seamless cell-material integration. As such, currently available bioelectronic materials are predominantly engineered toward achieving high-performing devices while maintaining the ability to recapitulate the local excitable cell/tissue microenvironment. However, such reports rarely address the dynamic signal coupling or exchange that occurs at the biotic-abiotic interface, as well as the distinction between the ionic transport involved in natural biological process and the electronic (or mixed ionic/electronic) conduction commonly responsible for bioelectronic systems. In this review, we highlight current literature reports that offer platforms capable of bidirectional signal exchange at the biotic-abiotic interface with excitable cell types, along with the design criteria for such biomaterials. Furthermore, insights on current materials not yet explored for biointerfacing or bioelectronics that have potential for bidirectional applications are also provided. Finally, we offer perspectives aimed at bringing attention to the coupling of the signals delivered by synthetic material to natural biological conduction mechanisms, areas of improvement regarding characterizing biotic-abiotic crosstalk, as well as the dynamic nature of this exchange, to be taken into consideration for material/device design consideration for next-generation bioelectronic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Kwangja Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Natalie Celt
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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2
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Areecheewakul S, Adamcakova-Dodd A, Zacharias ZR, Jing X, Meyerholz DK, Legge KL, Houtman JCD, O’Shaughnessy PT, Thorne PS, Salem AK. Immunomodulatory Effects of Subacute Inhalation Exposure to Copper Oxide Nanoparticles in House Dust Mite-Induced Asthma. ACS NANO 2023; 17:14586-14603. [PMID: 37463491 PMCID: PMC10416562 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c01668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
It has been shown that inhalation exposure to copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) results in pulmonary inflammation. However, immunomodulatory consequences after CuO NP inhalation exposure have been less explored. We tested the effect of CuO NP aerosols on immune responses in healthy, house dust mite (HDM) asthmatic, or allergen immunotherapy (AIT)-treated asthmatic mice (BALB/c, females). The AIT consisted of a vaccine comprising HDM allergens and CpG-loaded nanoparticles (CpG NPs). AIT treatment involved mice being immunized (via subcutaneous (sc) injection; 2 doses) while concomitantly being exposed to CuO NP aerosols (over a 2 week period), starting on the day of the first vaccination. Mice were then sensitized twice by sc injection and subsequently challenged with HDM extract 10 times by intranasal instillation. The asthmatic model followed the same timeline except that no immunizations were administered. All mice were necropsied 24 h after the end of the HDM challenge. CuO NP-exposed healthy mice showed a significant decrease in TH1 and TH2 cells, and an elevation in T-bet+ Treg cells, even 40 days after the last exposure to CuO NPs. Similarly, the CuO NP-exposed HDM asthma model demonstrated decreased TH2 responses and increased T-bet+ Treg cells. Conversely, CuO NP inhalation exposure to AIT-treated asthmatic mice resulted in an increase in TH2 cells. In conclusion, immunomodulatory effects of inhalation exposure to CuO NPs are dependent on immune conditions prior to exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudartip Areecheewakul
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Andrea Adamcakova-Dodd
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Zeb R. Zacharias
- Interdisciplinary
Immunology Graduate Program, Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Xuefang Jing
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - David K. Meyerholz
- Department
of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Kevin L. Legge
- Interdisciplinary
Immunology Graduate Program, Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Jon C. D. Houtman
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Patrick T. O’Shaughnessy
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Peter S. Thorne
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Human
Toxicology
Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Aliasger K. Salem
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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3
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Tang X, Huang Q, Arai T, Liu X. Cell pairing for biological analysis in microfluidic devices. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2022; 16:061501. [PMID: 36389274 PMCID: PMC9646252 DOI: 10.1063/5.0095828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cell pairing at the single-cell level usually allows a few cells to contact or seal in a single chamber and provides high-resolution imaging. It is pivotal for biological research, including understanding basic cell functions, creating cancer treatment technologies, developing drugs, and more. Laboratory chips based on microfluidics have been widely used to trap, immobilize, and analyze cells due to their high efficiency, high throughput, and good biocompatibility properties. Cell pairing technology in microfluidic devices provides spatiotemporal research on cellular interactions and a highly controlled approach for cell heterogeneity studies. In the last few decades, many researchers have emphasized cell pairing research based on microfluidics. They designed various microfluidic device structures for different biological applications. Herein, we describe the current physical methods of microfluidic devices to trap cell pairs. We emphatically summarize the practical applications of cell pairing in microfluidic devices, including cell fusion, cell immunity, gap junction intercellular communication, cell co-culture, and other applications. Finally, we review the advances and existing challenges of the presented devices and then discuss the possible development directions to promote medical and biological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Tang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qiang Huang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tatsuo Arai
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xiaoming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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4
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A reductionist approach to determine the effect of cell-cell contact on human epidermal stem cell differentiation. Acta Biomater 2022; 150:265-276. [PMID: 35926780 PMCID: PMC9810539 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.07.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The balance between stem cell renewal and differentiation is determined by the interplay between intrinsic cellular controls and extrinsic factors presented by the microenvironment, or 'niche'. Previous studies on cultured human epidermis have utilised suspension culture and restricted cell spreading to investigate regulation of differentiation in single keratinocytes. However, keratinocytes are typically adherent to neighbouring cells in vivo. We therefore developed experimental models to investigate the combined effects of cell-ECM adhesion and cell-cell contact. We utilized lipid-modified oligonucleotides to form clusters of keratinocytes which were subsequently placed in suspension to induce terminal differentiation. In this experimental model cell-cell contact had no effect on suspension-induced differentiation of keratinocytes. We next developed a high-throughput platform for robust geometrical confinement of keratinocytes to hexagonal ECM-coated islands permitting direct cell-cell contact between single cells. As in the case of circular islands, differentiation was stimulated on the smallest single hexagonal islands. However, the percentage of involucrin-positive cells on small bowtie islands was significantly lower than on single islands, demonstrating that cell-cell contact reduced differentiation in response to decreased substrate adhesion. None of the small bowtie islands contained two involucrin-positive cells. Rather, if one cell was involucrin-positive the other was involucrin-negative. This suggests that there is intrinsic asymmetry in the effect of cell-cell contact in decreasing differentiation. Thus, our reductionist approaches provide new insights into the effect of the niche on keratinocyte differentiation. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Stem cell behaviour is regulated by a combination of external signals, including the nature of the adhesive substrate and cell-cell interactions. An understanding of how different signals are integrated creates the possibility of developing new biomaterials to promote tissue regeneration and broaden our understanding of skin diseases such as eczema and psoriasis, in which stem cell proliferation and differentiation are perturbed. In this study we have applied two methods to engineer intercellular adhesion of human epidermal stem cells, one involving lipid-modified DNA and the other involving hexagonal micropatterns. We show that the effect of cell-cell adhesion depends on cell-substrate adhesion and uncover evidence that two cells in equivalent environments can nevertheless behave differently.
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5
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Ardoña HAM, Zimmerman JF, Shani K, Kim SH, Eweje F, Bitounis D, Parviz D, Casalino E, Strano M, Demokritou P, Parker KK. Differential modulation of endothelial cytoplasmic protrusions after exposure to graphene-family nanomaterials. NANOIMPACT 2022; 26:100401. [PMID: 35560286 PMCID: PMC9812361 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2022.100401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Engineered nanomaterials offer the benefit of having systematically tunable physicochemical characteristics (e.g., size, dimensionality, and surface chemistry) that highly dictate the biological activity of a material. Among the most promising engineered nanomaterials to date are graphene-family nanomaterials (GFNs), which are 2-D nanomaterials (2DNMs) with unique electrical and mechanical properties. Beyond engineering new nanomaterial properties, employing safety-by-design through considering the consequences of cell-material interactions is essential for exploring their applicability in the biomedical realm. In this study, we asked the effect of GFNs on the endothelial barrier function and cellular architecture of vascular endothelial cells. Using micropatterned cell pairs as a reductionist in vitro model of the endothelium, the progression of cytoskeletal reorganization as a function of GFN surface chemistry and time was quantitatively monitored. Here, we show that the surface oxidation of GFNs (graphene, reduced graphene oxide, partially reduced graphene oxide, and graphene oxide) differentially affect the endothelial barrier at multiple scales; from the biochemical pathways that influence the development of cellular protrusions to endothelial barrier integrity. More oxidized GFNs induce higher endothelial permeability and the increased formation of cytoplasmic protrusions such as filopodia. We found that these changes in cytoskeletal organization, along with barrier function, can be potentiated by the effect of GFNs on the Rho/Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) pathway. Specifically, GFNs with higher surface oxidation elicit stronger ROCK2 inhibitory behavior as compared to pristine graphene sheets. Overall, findings from these studies offer a new perspective towards systematically controlling the surface-dependent effects of GFNs on cytoskeletal organization via ROCK2 inhibition, providing insight for implementing safety-by-design principles in GFN manufacturing towards their targeted biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herdeline Ann M Ardoña
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA
| | - John F Zimmerman
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA
| | - Kevin Shani
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA
| | - Su-Hwan Kim
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA
| | - Feyisayo Eweje
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA
| | - Dimitrios Bitounis
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Dorsa Parviz
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue 66-570b, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Evan Casalino
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA
| | - Michael Strano
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue 66-570b, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kevin Kit Parker
- Disease Biophysics Group, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02134, USA.
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6
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Bitounis D, Huang Q, Toprani SM, Setyawati MI, Oliveira N, Wu Z, Tay CY, Ng KW, Nagel ZD, Demokritou P. Printer center nanoparticles alter the DNA repair capacity of human bronchial airway epithelial cells. NANOIMPACT 2022; 25:100379. [PMID: 35559885 PMCID: PMC9661631 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2022.100379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Nano-enabled, toner-based printing equipment emit nanoparticles during operation. The bioactivity of these nanoparticles as documented in a plethora of published toxicological studies raises concerns about their potential health effects. These include pro-inflammatory effects that can lead to adverse epigenetic alterations and cardiovascular disorders in rats. At the same time, their potential to alter DNA repair pathways at realistic doses remains unclear. In this study, size-fractionated, airborne particles from a printer center in Singapore were sampled and characterized. The PM0.1 size fraction (particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 100 nm) of printer center particles (PCP) were then administered to human lung adenocarcinoma (Calu-3) or lymphoblastoid (TK6) cells. We evaluated plasma membrane integrity, mitochondrial activity, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Moreover, we quantified DNA damage and alterations in the cells' capacity to repair 6 distinct types of DNA lesions. Results show that PCP altered the ability of Calu-3 cells to repair 8oxoG:C lesions and perform nucleotide excision repair, in the absence of acute cytotoxicity or DNA damage. Alterations in DNA repair capacity have been correlated with the risk of various diseases, including cancer, therefore further genotoxicity studies are needed to assess the potential risks of PCP exposure, at both occupational settings and at the end-consumer level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Bitounis
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Qiansheng Huang
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Sneh M Toprani
- John B. Little Center of Radiation Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Magdiel I Setyawati
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Nathalia Oliveira
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Zhuoran Wu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Chor Yong Tay
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institution, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 637551, Singapore
| | - Kee Woei Ng
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA; School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institution, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Zachary D Nagel
- John B. Little Center of Radiation Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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7
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Fukuto A, Kim S, Kang J, Gates BL, Chang MW, Pinkerton KE, Van Winkle LS, Kiuchi Y, Murphy CJ, Leonard BC, Thomasy SM. Metal Oxide Engineered Nanomaterials Modulate Rabbit Corneal Fibroblast to Myofibroblast Transformation. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2021; 10:23. [PMID: 34661622 PMCID: PMC8525860 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.10.12.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Corneal keratocyte-fibroblast-myofibroblast (KFM) transformation plays a critical role in corneal stromal wound healing. However, the impact of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), found in an increasing number of commercial products, on this process is poorly studied. This study investigates the effects of metal oxide ENMs on KFM transformation in vitro and in vivo. Methods Cell viability of rabbit corneal fibroblasts (RCFs) was tested following treatment with 11 metal oxide ENMs at concentrations of 0.5 to 250 µg/ml for 24 hours. Messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression of αSMA, a marker of myofibroblast transformation, were measured using RCFs after exposure to 11 metal oxide ENMs at a concentration that did not affect cell viability, in media containing either 0 or 10 ng/ml of TGF-β1. Additionally, the effect of topical Fe2O3 nanoparticles (NPs) (50 ng/ml) on corneal stromal wound healing following phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) was determined. Results V2O5, Fe2O3, CuO, and ZnO ENMs were found to significantly reduce cell viability as compared to vehicle control and the other seven metal oxide ENMs tested. V2O5 nanoflakes significantly reduced mRNA and protein αSMA concentrations in the presence of TGF-β1. Fe2O3 NPs significantly increased αSMA mRNA expression in the presence of TGF-β1 but did not alter αSMA protein expression. Topically applied Fe2O3 NPs in an in vivo rabbit corneal stromal wound healing model did not delay healing. Conclusions Fe2O3 NPs promote corneal myofibroblast induction in vitro but do not impair corneal stromal wound healing in vivo. Translational Relevance These experimental results can apply to human nanomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuhiko Fukuto
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Soohyun Kim
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer Kang
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Brooke L Gates
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Maggie W Chang
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Kent E Pinkerton
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Laura S Van Winkle
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Yoshiaki Kiuchi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Christopher J Murphy
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology & Vision Science, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Brian C Leonard
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Sara M Thomasy
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology & Vision Science, School of Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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8
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Lu RXZ, Radisic M. Organ-on-a-chip platforms for evaluation of environmental nanoparticle toxicity. Bioact Mater 2021; 6:2801-2819. [PMID: 33665510 PMCID: PMC7900603 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite showing a great promise in the field of nanomedicine, nanoparticles have gained a significant attention from regulatory agencies regarding their possible adverse health effects upon environmental exposure. Whether those nanoparticles are generated through intentional or unintentional means, the constant exposure to nanomaterials can inevitably lead to unintended consequences based on epidemiological data, yet the current understanding of nanotoxicity is insufficient relative to the rate of their emission in the environment and the lack of predictive platforms that mimic the human physiology. This calls for a development of more physiologically relevant models, which permit the comprehensive and systematic examination of toxic properties of nanoparticles. With the advancement in microfabrication techniques, scientists have shifted their focus on the development of an engineered system that acts as an intermediate between a well-plate system and animal models, known as organ-on-a-chips. The ability of organ-on-a-chip models to recapitulate in vivo like microenvironment and responses offers a new avenue for nanotoxicological research. In this review, we aim to provide overview of assessing potential risks of nanoparticle exposure using organ-on-a-chip systems and their potential to delineate biological mechanisms of epidemiological findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick Xing Ze Lu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Milica Radisic
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- The Heart and Stroke/Richard Lewar Centre of Excellence, Toronto, ON, Canada
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9
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Toprani SM, Bitounis D, Qiansheng H, Oliveira N, Ng KW, Tay CY, Nagel ZD, Demokritou P. High-Throughput Screening Platform for Nanoparticle-Mediated Alterations of DNA Repair Capacity. ACS NANO 2021; 15:4728-4746. [PMID: 33710878 PMCID: PMC8111687 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c09254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The potential genotoxic effects of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) may occur through the induction of DNA damage or the disruption of DNA repair processes. Inefficient DNA repair may lead to the accumulation of DNA lesions and has been linked to various diseases, including cancer. Most studies so far have focused on understanding the nanogenotoxicity of ENM-induced damages to DNA, whereas the effects on DNA repair have been widely overlooked. The recently developed fluorescence multiplex-host-cell reactivation (FM-HCR) assay allows for the direct quantification of multiple DNA repair pathways in living cells and offers a great opportunity to address this methodological gap. Herein an FM-HCR-based method is developed to screen the impact of ENMs on six major DNA repair pathways using suspended or adherent cells. The sensitivity and efficiency of this DNA repair screening method were demonstrated in case studies using primary human small airway epithelial cells and TK6 cells exposed to various model ENMs (CuO, ZnO, and Ga2O3) at subcytotoxic doses. It was shown that ENMs may inhibit nucleotide-excision repair, base-excision repair, and the repair of oxidative damage by DNA glycosylases in TK6 cells, even in the absence of significant genomic DNA damage. It is of note that the DNA repair capacity was increased by some ENMs, whereas it was suppressed by others. Overall, this method can be part of a multitier, in vitro hazard assessment of ENMs as a functional, high-throughput platform that provides insights into the interplay of the properties of ENMs, the DNA repair efficiency, and the genomic stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sneh M Toprani
- John B Little Center of Radiation Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Dimitrios Bitounis
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Huang Qiansheng
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Nathalia Oliveira
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kee Woei Ng
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave Boston, MA 02115, USA
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
- Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institution, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Chor Yong Tay
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 637551, Singapore
| | - Zachary D Nagel
- John B Little Center of Radiation Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, 655 Huntington Ave Boston, MA 02115, USA
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10
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Wu Z, Shi P, Lim HK, Ma Y, Setyawati MI, Bitounis D, Demokritou P, Ng KW, Tay CY. Inflammation Increases Susceptibility of Human Small Airway Epithelial Cells to Pneumonic Nanotoxicity. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2000963. [PMID: 32338442 PMCID: PMC8074924 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202000963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to inhaled anthropogenic nanomaterials (NM) with dimension <100 nm has been implicated in numerous adverse respiratory outcomes. Although studies have identified key NM physiochemical determinants of pneumonic nanotoxicity, the complex interactive and cumulative effects of NM exposure, especially in individuals with preexisting inflammatory respiratory diseases, remain unclear. Herein, the susceptibility of primary human small airway epithelial cells (SAEC) exposed to a panel of reference NM, namely, CuO, ZnO, mild steel welding fume (MSWF), and nanofractions of copier center particles (Nano-CCP), is examined in normal and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)-induced inflamed SAEC. Compared to normal SAEC, inflamed cells display an increased susceptibility to NM-induced cytotoxicity by 15-70% due to a higher basal level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Among the NM screened, ZnO, CuO, and Nano-CCP are observed to trigger an overcompensatory response in normal SAEC, resulting in an increased tolerance against subsequent oxidative insults. However, the inflamed SAEC fails to adapt to the NM exposure due to an impaired nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated cytoprotective response. The findings reveal that susceptibility to pulmonary nanotoxicity is highly dependent on the interplay between NM properties and inflammation of the alveolar milieu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoran Wu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Pujiang Shi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Hong Kit Lim
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Yiyuan Ma
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Magdiel Inggrid Setyawati
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Dimitrios Bitounis
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Harvard University, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Harvard University, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kee Woei Ng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Harvard University, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre, Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
- Skin Research Institute of Singapore, 8A Biomedical Grove, Singapore, 138648, Singapore
| | - Chor Yong Tay
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
- Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre, Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
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11
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O’Connor BB, Grevesse T, Zimmerman JF, Ardoña HAM, Jimenez JA, Bitounis D, Demokritou P, Parker KK. Human brain microvascular endothelial cell pairs model tissue-level blood-brain barrier function. Integr Biol (Camb) 2020; 12:64-79. [PMID: 32195539 PMCID: PMC7155416 DOI: 10.1093/intbio/zyaa005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier plays a critical role in delivering oxygen and nutrients to the brain while preventing the transport of neurotoxins. Predicting the ability of potential therapeutics and neurotoxicants to modulate brain barrier function remains a challenge due to limited spatial resolution and geometric constraints offered by existing in vitro models. Using soft lithography to control the shape of microvascular tissues, we predicted blood-brain barrier permeability states based on structural changes in human brain endothelial cells. We quantified morphological differences in nuclear, junction, and cytoskeletal proteins that influence, or indicate, barrier permeability. We established a correlation between brain endothelial cell pair structure and permeability by treating cell pairs and tissues with known cytoskeleton-modulating agents, including a Rho activator, a Rho inhibitor, and a cyclic adenosine monophosphate analog. Using this approach, we found that high-permeability cell pairs showed nuclear elongation, loss of junction proteins, and increased actin stress fiber formation, which were indicative of increased contractility. We measured traction forces generated by high- and low-permeability pairs, finding that higher stress at the intercellular junction contributes to barrier leakiness. We further tested the applicability of this platform to predict modulations in brain endothelial permeability by exposing cell pairs to engineered nanomaterials, including gold, silver-silica, and cerium oxide nanoparticles, thereby uncovering new insights into the mechanism of nanoparticle-mediated barrier disruption. Overall, we confirm the utility of this platform to assess the multiscale impact of pharmacological agents or environmental toxicants on blood-brain barrier integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blakely B O’Connor
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Thomas Grevesse
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - John F Zimmerman
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Herdeline Ann M Ardoña
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Jorge A Jimenez
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Dimitrios Bitounis
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kevin Kit Parker
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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12
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Wang Y, Adamcakova-Dodd A, Steines BR, Jing X, Salem AK, Thorne PS. Comparison of in vitro toxicity of aerosolized engineered nanomaterials using air-liquid interface mono-culture and co-culture models. NANOIMPACT 2020; 18:100215. [PMID: 32885098 PMCID: PMC7462419 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2020.100215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Airborne engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) can readily enter the human body through inhalation potentially leading to adverse health effects such as cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. Our group has previously utilized and validated an integrated low flow system capable of generating and depositing airborne ENMs directly onto cells at an air-liquid interface (ALI). To further improve this ALI method for an even closer representation of the in vivo system, a co-culture model containing epithelial, endothelial and macrophage cell lines (A549, EA.hy 926, and THP-1 differentiated macrophages) was established and validated for testing ENMs toxicity. In the co-culture model, cells were exposed to citrate-capped gold (Au), 15% silver on silica (Ag-SiO2) and copper oxide (CuO) ENMs under the same protocol (4 h ALI exposure with a target concentration of 3.5 mg/m3) and compared to responses with A549 cells only or THP-1 differentiated cells only. The toxicological profile was assessed by measuring cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, and interleukin (IL)-8 concentration. Results showed that 15% Ag-SiO2 induced more oxidative stress-related toxicity in the co-culture than in A549 cells alone. Both 15% Ag-SiO2 and CuO exposure produced significantly higher levels of IL-8 in the co-culture compared with A549 cells alone. Citrate-capped Au was largely inert. Further exposures of CuO on macrophages alone provided evidence of cell-cell interaction in the co-culture model. In addition, the co-culture model exhibited a similar response to primary human bronchial epithelial cells in terms of ROS and IL-8 responses after CuO exposure, suggesting a more advanced refinement of the conventional model for in vitro inhalation study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifang Wang
- Human Toxicology Interdisciplinary Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | | | - Benjamin R. Steines
- Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Xuefang Jing
- Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | | | - Peter S. Thorne
- Human Toxicology Interdisciplinary Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
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13
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Kim S, Gates B, Leonard BC, Gragg M, Pinkerton KE, Winkle LV, Murphy CJ, Pyrgiotakis G, Zhang Z, Demokritou P, Thomasy SM. Engineered metal oxide nanomaterials inhibit corneal epithelial wound healing in vitro and in vivo. NANOIMPACT 2020; 17:100198. [PMID: 32154443 PMCID: PMC7062360 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2019.100198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Ocular exposure to metal oxide engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) is common as exemplified by zinc oxide (ZnO), a major constituent of sunscreens and cosmetics. The ocular surface that includes the transparent cornea and its protective tear film are common sites of exposure for metal ENMs. Despite the frequency of exposure of the ocular surface, there is a knowledge gap regarding the effects of metal oxide ENMs on the cornea in health and disease. Therefore, we studied the effects of metal oxide ENMs on the cornea in the presence or absence of injury. Cell viability of immortalized human corneal epithelial (hTCEpi) cells was assessed following treatment with 11 metal oxide ENMs with a concentration ranging from 0.5 to 250 μg/mL for 24 hours. An epithelial wound healing assay with a monolayer of hTCEpi cells was then performed using 11 metal oxide ENMs at select concentrations based on data from the viability assays. Subsequently, based on the in vitro results, in vivo testing of precorneal tear film (PTF) quantity and stability as well as a corneal epithelial wound healing were tested in the presence or absence ZnO or vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) at a concentration of 50 μg/mL. We found that WO3, ZnO, V2O5 and CuO ENMs significantly reduced hTCEpi cell viability in comparison to vehicle control or the other metal oxide ENMs tested. Furthermore, ZnO and V2O5 ENMs also significantly decreased hTCEpi cell migration. Although ZnO and V2O5 did not alter PTF parameters of rabbits in vivo, corneal epithelial wound healing was significantly delayed by topical ZnO while V2O5 did not alter wound healing. Finally, hyperspectral images confirmed penetration of ZnO and V2O5 through all corneal layers and into the iris stroma. Considering the marked epithelial toxicity and corneal penetration of ZnO, further investigations on the impact of this ENM on the eye are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soohyun Kim
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Brooke Gates
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Brian C. Leonard
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Megan Gragg
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Kent E. Pinkerton
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Laura Van Winkle
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Christopher J. Murphy
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, School of Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Georgios Pyrgiotakis
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, HSPH-NIEHS Nanosafety Center, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public School, Harvard University, 665 Huntington Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Zhenyuan Zhang
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, HSPH-NIEHS Nanosafety Center, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public School, Harvard University, 665 Huntington Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, HSPH-NIEHS Nanosafety Center, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public School, Harvard University, 665 Huntington Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sara M. Thomasy
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Science, School of Medicine, University of California - Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Corresponding author: Tel: +1 530 752 0926, Fax: +1 530 752 3708,
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14
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Touloumes GJ, Ardoña HAM, Casalino EK, Zimmerman JF, Chantre CO, Bitounis D, Demokritou P, Parker KK. Mapping 2D- and 3D-distributions of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles within cleared human ex vivo skin tissues. NANOIMPACT 2020; 17:100208. [PMID: 33251378 PMCID: PMC7687853 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2020.100208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
An increasing number of commercial skincare products are being manufactured with engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), prompting a need to fully understand how ENMs interact with the dermal barrier as a major biodistribution entry route. Although animal studies show that certain nanomaterials can cross the skin barrier, physiological differences between human and animal skin, such as the lack of sweat glands, limit the translational validity of these results. Current optical microscopy methods have limited capabilities to visualize ENMs within human skin tissues due to the high amount of background light scattering caused by the dense, ubiquitous extracellular matrix (ECM) of the skin. Here, we hypothesized that organic solvent-based tissue clearing ("immunolabeling-enabled three-dimensional imaging of solvent-cleared organs", or "iDISCO") would reduce background light scattering from the extracellular matrix of the skin to sufficiently improve imaging contrast for both 2D mapping of unlabeled metal oxide ENMs and 3D mapping of fluorescent nanoparticles. We successfully mapped the 2D distribution of label-free TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles in cleared skin sections using correlated signals from darkfield, brightfield, and confocal microscopy, as well as micro-spectroscopy. Specifically, hyperspectral microscopy and Raman spectroscopy confirmed the identity of label-free ENMs which we mapped within human skin sections. We also measured the 3D distribution of fluorescently labeled Ag nanoparticles in cleared skin biopsies with wounded epidermal layers using light sheet fluorescence microscopy. Overall, this study explores a novel strategy for quantitatively mapping ENM distributions in cleared ex vivo human skin tissue models using multiple imaging modalities. By improving the imaging contrast, we present label-free 2D ENM tracking and 3D ENM mapping as promising capabilities for nanotoxicology investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- George J. Touloumes
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Herdeline Ann M. Ardoña
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Evan K. Casalino
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - John F. Zimmerman
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Christophe O. Chantre
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
| | - Dimitrios Bitounis
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Philip Demokritou
- Center for Nanotechnology and Nanotoxicology, Department of Environmental Health, T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Kevin Kit Parker
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
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