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Wang X, Yu H, Zhou J, Wang H. Upgrading anode graphite from retired lithium ion batteries via solid-phase exfoliation by mechanochemical strategy. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 182:102-112. [PMID: 38648688 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Vast quantities of anode graphite from waste lithium ion batteries (LIBs), as a type of underrated urban mine, has enormous potential to be exploited for resource recovery. Herein, we propose a benign process integrating low-temperature pyrolysis and mechanochemical techniques to upcycle spent graphite (SG) from end-of-life LIBs. Pyrolysis at 500 °C leads to about 82.2 % PVDF dissociation in thermal treated graphite (TG). Solid-phase exfoliation via ball milling assisted by urea successfully produces abundant graphite flakes and a small amount of monolayer graphene nanosheet at the edge of mechanochemically processed graphite (MG). Subsequent rinsing removes the residual LiF salts. High purity and unique edge structural features of the as-prepared MG offer more active sites and storage reservoir for intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium ions, resulting in enhanced lithium-ion diffusion kinetics, excellent reversible specific capacity and desirable rate capability. Inspiringly, MG exhibits a remarkably enhanced initial specific charge capacity of 521.3 mAh g-1 during the first charge-discharge, and only declines from 569.9 mAh g-1 to 538 mAh g-1 with slight attenuation after 50 consecutive cycles at 0.1 A/g, indicating satisfactory cycle stability. Additionally, the purification and reconstruction mechanism for MG have been illustrated in detail. This study offers a green strategy to reconstruct and upgrade anode graphite from LIBs, which can realize sustainable waste management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueru Wang
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, People's Republic of China
| | - Haichao Yu
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Zhou
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, People's Republic of China.
| | - Hui Wang
- College of Materials and Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, People's Republic of China
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Guo Z, Liu G, Hao H, Yang J, Lei H, Shi X, Li W, Liu W. Polyaniline-graphene based composites electrode materials in supercapacitor: synthesis, performance and prospects. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2024; 36:263001. [PMID: 38537284 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ad386f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Supercapacitors (SCs) have become one of the most popular energy-storage devices for high power density and fast charging/discharging capability. Polyaniline is a class of conductive polymer materials with ultra-high specific capacitance, and the excellent mechanical properties will play a key role in the research of flexible SCs. The synergistic effect between polyaniline and graphene is often used to overcome their respective inherent shortcomings, thus the high-performance polyaniline-graphene based nanocomposite electrode materials can be prepared. The development of graphene-polyaniline nanocomposites as electrode materials for SCs depends on their excellent microstructure design. However, it is still difficult to seek a balance between graphene performance and functionalization to improve the weak interfacial interaction between graphene and polyaniline. In this manuscript, the latest preparation methods, research progress and research results of graphene-polyaniline nanocomposites on SCs are reviewed, and the optimization of electrode structures and performances is discussed. Finally, the prospect of graphene-polyaniline composites is expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zefei Guo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Gengzheng Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Huilian Hao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Yang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Huayu Lei
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuerong Shi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenyao Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenfu Liu
- College of Energy Engineering, Huanghai University, 76 Kaiyuan Road, Zhumadian, People's Republic of China
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Ozkan S, Tkachenko L, Petrov V, Efimov O, Karpacheva G. Novel Hybrid Electrode Coatings Based on Conjugated Polyacid Ternary Nanocomposites for Supercapacitor Applications. Molecules 2023; 28:5093. [PMID: 37446754 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28135093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrochemical behavior of novel electrode materials based on polydiphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid (PDPAC) binary and ternary nanocomposite coatings was studied for the first time. Nanocomposite materials were obtained in acidic or alkaline media using oxidative polymerization of diphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid (DPAC) in the presence of activated IR-pyrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (IR-PAN-a) only or IR-PAN-a and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT). Hybrid electrodes are electroactive layers of stable suspensions of IR-PAN-a/PDPAC and IR-PAN-a/SWCNT/PDPAC nanocomposites in formic acid (FA) formed on the flexible strips of anodized graphite foil (AGF). Specific capacitances of electrodes depend on the method for the production of electroactive coatings. Electrodes specific surface capacitances Cs reach 0.129 and 0.161 F∙cm-2 for AGF/IR-PAN-a/PDPACac and AGF/IR-PAN-a/SWCNT/PDPACac, while for AGF/IR-PAN-a/PDPACalk and AGF/IR-PAN-a/SWCNT/PDPACalk Cs amount to 0.135 and 0.151 F∙cm-2. Specific weight capacitances Cw of electrodes with ternary coatings reach 394, 283, 180 F∙g-1 (AGF/IR-PAN-a/SWCNT/PDPACac) and 361, 239, 142 F∙g-1 (AGF/IR-PAN-a/SWCNT/PDPACalk) at 0.5, 1.5, 3.0 mA·cm-2 in an aprotic electrolyte. Such hybrid electrodes with electroactive nanocomposite coatings are promising as a cathode material for SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sveta Ozkan
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Lyudmila Tkachenko
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Avenue, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia
| | - Valeriy Petrov
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Oleg Efimov
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Avenue, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia
| | - Galina Karpacheva
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119991, Russia
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Ozkan SZ, Tkachenko LI, Efimov ON, Karpacheva GP, Nikolaeva GV, Kostev AI, Dremova NN, Kabachkov EN. Advanced Electrode Coatings Based on Poly-N-Phenylanthranilic Acid Composites with Reduced Graphene Oxide for Supercapacitors. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15081896. [PMID: 37112043 PMCID: PMC10145564 DOI: 10.3390/polym15081896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The electrochemical behavior of new electrode materials based on poly-N-phenylanthranilic acid (P-N-PAA) composites with reduced graphene oxide (RGO) was studied for the first time. Two methods of obtaining RGO/P-N-PAA composites were suggested. Hybrid materials were synthesized via in situ oxidative polymerization of N-phenylanthranilic acid (N-PAA) in the presence of graphene oxide (GO) (RGO/P-N-PAA-1), as well as from a P-N-PAA solution in DMF containing GO (RGO/P-N-PAA-2). GO post-reduction in the RGO/P-N-PAA composites was carried out under IR heating. Hybrid electrodes are electroactive layers of RGO/P-N-PAA composites stable suspensions in formic acid (FA) deposited on the glassy carbon (GC) and anodized graphite foil (AGF) surfaces. The roughened surface of the AGF flexible strips provides good adhesion of the electroactive coatings. Specific electrochemical capacitances of AGF-based electrodes depend on the method for the production of electroactive coatings and reach 268, 184, 111 F∙g-1 (RGO/P-N-PAA-1) and 407, 321, 255 F∙g-1 (RGO/P-N-PAA-2.1) at 0.5, 1.5, 3.0 mA·cm-2 in an aprotic electrolyte. Specific weight capacitance values of IR-heated composite coatings decrease as compared to capacitance values of primer coatings and amount to 216, 145, 78 F∙g-1 (RGO/P-N-PAA-1IR) and 377, 291, 200 F∙g-1 (RGO/P-N-PAA-2.1IR). With a decrease in the weight of the applied coating, the specific electrochemical capacitance of the electrodes increases to 752, 524, 329 F∙g-1 (AGF/RGO/P-N-PAA-2.1) and 691, 455, 255 F∙g-1 (AGF/RGO/P-N-PAA-1IR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sveta Zhiraslanovna Ozkan
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Lyudmila Ivanovna Tkachenko
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Prospect, Moscow 142432, Russia
| | - Oleg Nikolaevich Efimov
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Prospect, Moscow 142432, Russia
| | - Galina Petrovna Karpacheva
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Galina Vasilevna Nikolaeva
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Prospect, Moscow 142432, Russia
| | - Aleksandr Ivanovich Kostev
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Nadejda Nikolaevna Dremova
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Prospect, Moscow 142432, Russia
| | - Evgeny Nikolaevich Kabachkov
- Federal Research Center of Problems of Chemical Physics and Medicinal Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1 Academician Semenov Prospect, Moscow 142432, Russia
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Al-Ithawi WKA, Khasanov AF, Kovalev IS, Nikonov IL, Platonov VA, Kopchuk DS, Santra S, Zyryanov GV, Ranu BC. TM-Free and TM-Catalyzed Mechanosynthesis of Functional Polymers. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15081853. [PMID: 37112002 PMCID: PMC10142995 DOI: 10.3390/polym15081853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mechanochemically induced methods are commonly used for the depolymerization of polymers, including plastic and agricultural wastes. So far, these methods have rarely been used for polymer synthesis. Compared to conventional polymerization in solutions, mechanochemical polymerization offers numerous advantages such as less or no solvent consumption, the accessibility of novel structures, the inclusion of co-polymers and post-modified polymers, and, most importantly, the avoidance of problems posed by low monomer/oligomer solubility and fast precipitation during polymerization. Consequently, the development of new functional polymers and materials, including those based on mechanochemically synthesized polymers, has drawn much interest, particularly from the perspective of green chemistry. In this review, we tried to highlight the most representative examples of transition-metal (TM)-free and TM-catalyzed mechanosynthesis of some functional polymers, such as semiconductive polymers, porous polymeric materials, sensory materials, materials for photovoltaics, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wahab K A Al-Ithawi
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
- Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology-Iraq, Baghdad 10066, Iraq
| | - Albert F Khasanov
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Igor S Kovalev
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Igor L Nikonov
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
- I. Ya. Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis of RAS (Ural Division), 22/20 S. Kovalevskoy/Akademicheskaya St., 620219 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Vadim A Platonov
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Dmitry S Kopchuk
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
- I. Ya. Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis of RAS (Ural Division), 22/20 S. Kovalevskoy/Akademicheskaya St., 620219 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Sougata Santra
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Grigory V Zyryanov
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
- I. Ya. Postovsky Institute of Organic Synthesis of RAS (Ural Division), 22/20 S. Kovalevskoy/Akademicheskaya St., 620219 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Brindaban C Ranu
- Chemical Engineering Institute, Ural Federal University, 19 Mira St., 620002 Yekaterinburg, Russia
- School of Chemical Sciences, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
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Ozkan SZ, Petrov VA, Efimov MN, Vasilev AA, Muratov DG, Sadovnikov AA, Bondarenko GN, Karpacheva GP. Novel Hybrid Composites Based on Polymers of Diphenyl-Amine-2-Carboxylic Acid and Highly Porous Activated IR-Pyrolyzed Polyacrylonitrile. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15020441. [PMID: 36679321 PMCID: PMC9861318 DOI: 10.3390/polym15020441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Hybrid composites based on electroactive polymers of diphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid (PDPAC) and highly porous carbon with a hierarchical pore structure were prepared for the first time. Activated IR-pyrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (IR-PAN-a), characterized by a highly developed surface, was chosen as a highly porous N-doped carbon component of the hybrid materials. IR-PAN-a was prepared using pyrolysis of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) in the presence of potassium hydroxide under IR radiation. Composite materials were obtained using oxidative polymerization of diphenylamine-2-carboxylic acid (DPAC) in the presence of IR-PAN-a both in an acidic and an alkaline medium. The composite materials were IR-heated to reduce the oxygen content and enhance their physical and chemical properties. The chemical structure, morphology, and electrical and thermal properties of the developed IR-PAN-a/PDPAC composites were investigated. The IR-PAN-a/PDPAC composites are thermally stable and electrically conductive. During the synthesis of the composites in an acidic medium, doping of the polymer component occurs, which makes the main contribution to the composite conductivity (1.3 × 10-5 S/cm). A sharp drop in the electrical conductivity of the IR-PAN-a/PDPACac-IR composites to 3.4 × 10-10 S/cm is associated with the removal of the dopant during IR heating. The IR-PAN-a/PDPACalk composites prepared before and after IR heating show a gradual increase in electrical conductivity by five orders of magnitude to 1.6 × 10-5 S/cm at 25-106 Hz. IR heating of the obtained materials leads to a significant increase in their thermal properties. The IR-heated composites lose half of their initial weight in an inert atmosphere at temperatures above 1000 °C, whereas for IR-PAN-a/PDPAC, the temperature range is 840-849 °C.
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Mechanochemical Synthesis of Polyanilines and Their Nanocomposites: A Critical Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010133. [PMID: 36616492 PMCID: PMC9823481 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanochemical synthesis of polyanilines (PANIs), made by oxidative polymerization of anilines, is reviewed. First, previous knowledge of the polymerization reaction in solution is discussed to understand the effect of different parameters: oxidant/monomer ratio, added acid, oxidant, temperature and water content on the properties of the conducting polymers (molecular weight, degradation, doping/oxidation level, conductivity, and nanostructure). The work on mechanochemical polymerization (MCP) of anilines is analyzed in view of previous data in solution, and published data are critically reconsidered to clarify the interpretation of experimental results. A key factor is the production of acids during polymerization, which is often overlooked. The production of gaseous HCl during MCP of aniline hydrochloride is experimentally observed. Since some experiments involves the addition of small amounts of water, the kinetics and heat balance of the reaction with concentrated solutions were simulated. A simple experiment shows fast (<2 min) heating of the reaction mixture to the boiling point of water and temperature increments are observed during MCP in a mortar. The form and sizes of PANI nanostructures made by MCP or solution are compared. The extensive work on the production of nanocomposites by MCP of anilines together with different nanomaterials (porous clays, graphene, carbon nanotubes, metal, and oxide nanoparticles) is also described.
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Worsley EA, Margadonna S, Bertoncello P. Application of Graphene Nanoplatelets in Supercapacitor Devices: A Review of Recent Developments. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:3600. [PMID: 36296790 PMCID: PMC9609597 DOI: 10.3390/nano12203600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
As worldwide energy consumption continues to increase, so too does the demand for improved energy storage technologies. Supercapacitors are energy storage devices that are receiving considerable interest due to their appealing features such as high power densities and much longer cycle lives than batteries. As such, supercapacitors fill the gaps between conventional capacitors and batteries, which are characterised by high power density and high energy density, respectively. Carbon nanomaterials, such as graphene nanoplatelets, are being widely explored as supercapacitor electrode materials due to their high surface area, low toxicity, and ability to tune properties for the desired application. In this review, we first briefly introduce the theoretical background and basic working principles of supercapacitors and then discuss the effects of electrode material selection and structure of carbon nanomaterials on the performances of supercapacitors. Finally, we highlight the recent advances of graphene nanoplatelets and how chemical functionalisation can affect and improve their supercapacitor performance.
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Tan H, Navik R, Liu Z, Xiang Q, Zhao Y. Scalable massive production of defect-free few-layer graphene by ball-milling in series with shearing exfoliation in supercritical CO2. J Supercrit Fluids 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2021.105496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Brandão ATSC, Costa R, Silva AF, Pereira CM. Sustainable Preparation of Nanoporous Carbons via Dry Ball Milling: Electrochemical Studies Using Nanocarbon Composite Electrodes and a Deep Eutectic Solvent as Electrolyte. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:3258. [PMID: 34947610 PMCID: PMC8709160 DOI: 10.3390/nano11123258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The urgent need to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels drives the demand for renewable energy and has been attracting the interest of the scientific community to develop materials with improved energy storage properties. We propose a sustainable route to produce nanoporous carbon materials with a high-surface area from commercial graphite using a dry ball-milling procedure through a systematic study of the effects of dry ball-milling conditions on the properties of the modified carbons. The microstructure and morphology of the dry ball-milled graphite/carbon composites are characterized by BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) analysis, SEM (scanning electron microscopy), ATR-FTIR (attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) and Raman spectroscopy. As both the electrode and electrolyte play a significant role in any electrochemical energy storage device, the gravimetric capacitance was measured for ball-milled material/glassy carbon (GC) composite electrodes in contact with a deep eutectic solvent (DES) containing choline chloride and ethylene glycol as hydrogen bond donor (HBD) in a 1:2 molar ratio. Electrochemical stability was tracked by measuring charge/discharge curves. Carbons with different specific surface areas were tested and the relationship between the calculated capacitance and the surface treatment method was established. A five-fold increase in gravimetric capacitance, 25.27 F·g-1 (G40) against 5.45 F·g-1, was found for commercial graphene in contact with DES. Optimal milling time to achieve a higher surface area was also established.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carlos M. Pereira
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, CIQUP–Physical Analytical Chemistry and Electrochemistry Group, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169−007 Porto, Portugal; (A.T.S.C.B.); (R.C.); (A.F.S.)
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