Activity-dependent formation of perforated synapses in cultured hippocampal neurons

Glucocorticoid-Responsive Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA) and Its Inhibitor Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 (PAI-1): Relevance in Stress-Related Psychiatric Disorders

Stressful events trigger a set of complex biological responses which follow a bell-shaped pattern. Low-stress conditions have been shown to elicit beneficial effects, notably on synaptic plasticity together with an increase in cognitive processes. In contrast, overly intense stress can have deleterious behavioral effects leading to several stress-related pathologies such as anxiety, depression, substance use, obsessive-compulsive and stressor- and trauma-related disorders (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD in the case of traumatic events). Over a number of years, we have demonstrated that in response to stress, glucocorticoid hormones (GCs) in the hippocampus mediate a molecular shift in the balance between the expression of the tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and its own inhibitor plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) proteins. Interestingly, a shift in favor of PAI-1 was responsible for PTSD-like memory induction. In this review, after describing the biological system involving GCs, we highlight the key role of tPA/PAI-1 imbalance observed in preclinical and clinical studies associated with the emergence of stress-related pathological conditions. Thus, tPA/PAI-1 protein levels could be predictive biomarkers of the subsequent onset of stress-related disorders, and pharmacological modulation of their activity could be a potential new therapeutic approach for these debilitating conditions.

The Structural Basis of Long-Term Potentiation in Hippocampal Synapses, Revealed by Electron Microscopy Imaging of Lanthanum-Induced Synaptic Vesicle Recycling

Hippocampal neurons in dissociated cell cultures were exposed to the trivalent cation lanthanum for short periods (15–30 min) and prepared for electron microscopy (EM), to evaluate the stimulatory effects of this cation on synaptic ultrastructure. Not only were characteristic ultrastructural changes of exaggerated synaptic vesicle turnover seen within the presynapses of these cultures—including synaptic vesicle depletion and proliferation of vesicle-recycling structures—but the overall architecture of a large proportion of the synapses in the cultures was dramatically altered, due to large postsynaptic “bulges” or herniations into the presynapses. Moreover, in most cases, these postsynaptic herniations or protrusions produced by lanthanum were seen by EM to distort or break or “perforate” the so-called postsynaptic densities (PSDs) that harbor receptors and recognition molecules essential for synaptic function. These dramatic EM observations lead us to postulate that such PSD breakages or “perforations” could very possibly create essential substrates or “tags” for synaptic growth, simply by creating fragmented free edges around the PSDs, into which new receptors and recognition molecules could be recruited more easily, and thus, they could represent the physical substrate for the important synaptic growth process known as “long-term potentiation” (LTP). All of this was created simply in hippocampal dissociated cell cultures, and simply by pushing synaptic vesicle recycling way beyond its normal limits with the trivalent cation lanthanum, but we argued in this report that such fundamental changes in synaptic architecture—given that they can occur at all—could also occur at the extremes of normal neuronal activity, which are presumed to lead to learning and memory.

Comparative Ultrastructural Analysis of Thalamocortical Innervation of the Primary Motor Cortex and Supplementary Motor Area in Control and MPTP-Treated Parkinsonian Monkeys

The synaptic organization of thalamic inputs to motor cortices remains poorly understood in primates. Thus, we compared the regional and synaptic connections of vGluT2-positive thalamocortical glutamatergic terminals in the supplementary motor area (SMA) and the primary motor cortex (M1) between control and MPTP-treated parkinsonian monkeys. In controls, vGluT2-containing fibers and terminal-like profiles invaded layer II-III and Vb of M1 and SMA. A significant reduction of vGluT2 labeling was found in layer Vb, but not in layer II-III, of parkinsonian animals, suggesting a potential thalamic denervation of deep cortical layers in parkinsonism. There was a significant difference in the pattern of synaptic connectivity in layers II-III, but not in layer Vb, between M1 and SMA of control monkeys. However, this difference was abolished in parkinsonian animals. No major difference was found in the proportion of perforated versus macular post-synaptic densities at thalamocortical synapses between control and parkinsonian monkeys in both cortical regions, except for a slight increase in the prevalence of perforated axo-dendritic synapses in the SMA of parkinsonian monkeys. Our findings suggest that disruption of the thalamic innervation of M1 and SMA may underlie pathophysiological changes of the motor thalamocortical loop in the state of parkinsonism.

Wnt5a promotes hippocampal postsynaptic development and GluN2B-induced expression via the eIF2α HRI kinase

Wnt signaling plays a key role in neurodevelopment and neuronal maturation. Specifically, Wnt5a stimulates postsynaptic assemblies, increases glutamatergic neurotransmission and, through calcium signaling, generates nitric oxide (NO). Trying to unveil the molecular pathway triggering these postsynaptic effects, we found that Wnt5a treatment induces a time-dependent increases in the length of the postsynaptic density (PSD), elicits novel synaptic contacts and facilitates F-actin flow both in in vitro and ex vivo models. These effects were partially abolished by the inhibition of the Heme-regulated eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (HRI) kinase, a kinase which phosphorylates the initiation translational factor eIF2α. When phosphorylated, eIF2α normally avoids the translation of proteins not needed during stress conditions, in order to avoid unnecessary energetic expenses. However, phosphorylated eIF2α promotes the translation of some proteins with more than one open reading frame in its 5′ untranslated region. One of these proteins targeted by Wnt-HRI-eIF2α mediated translation is the GluN2B subunit of the NMDA receptor. The identified increase in GluN2B expression correlated with increased NMDA receptor function. Considering that NMDA receptors are crucial for excitatory synaptic transmission, the molecular pathway described here contributes to the understanding of the fast and plastic translational mechanisms activated during learning and memory processes.

The cellular and molecular basis of in vivo synaptic plasticity in rodents

Plasticity within the neuronal networks of the brain underlies the ability to learn and retain new information. The initial discovery of synaptic plasticity occurred by measuring synaptic strength in vivo, applying external stimulation and observing an increase in synaptic strength termed long-term potentiation (LTP). Many of the molecular pathways involved in LTP and other forms of synaptic plasticity were subsequently uncovered in vitro. Over the last few decades, technological advances in recording and imaging in live animals have seen many of these molecular mechanisms confirmed in vivo, including structural changes both pre- and postsynaptically, changes in synaptic strength, and changes in neuronal excitability. A well-studied aspect of neuronal plasticity is the capacity of the brain to adapt to its environment, gained by comparing the brains of deprived and experienced animals in vivo, and in direct response to sensory stimuli. Multiple in vivo studies have also strongly linked plastic changes to memory by interfering with the expression of plasticity and by manipulating memory engrams. Plasticity in vivo also occurs in the absence of any form of external stimulation, i.e., during spontaneous network activity occurring with brain development. However, there is still much to learn about how plasticity is induced during natural learning and how this is altered in neurological disorders.

Expression of C1ql3 in Discrete Neuronal Populations Controls Efferent Synapse Numbers and Diverse Behaviors

C1ql3 is a secreted neuronal protein that binds to BAI3, an adhesion-class GPCR. C1ql3 is homologous to other gC1q-domain proteins that control synapse numbers, but a role for C1ql3 in regulating synapse density has not been demonstrated. We show in cultured neurons that C1ql3 expression is activity dependent and supports excitatory synapse density. Using newly generated conditional and constitutive C1ql3 knockout mice, we found that C1ql3-deficient mice exhibited fewer excitatory synapses and diverse behavioral abnormalities, including marked impairments in fear memories. Using circuit-tracing tools and conditional ablation of C1ql3 targeted to specific brain regions, we demonstrate that C1ql3-expressing neurons in the basolateral amygdala project to the medial prefrontal cortex, that these efferents contribute to fear memory behavior, and that C1ql3 is required for formation and/or maintenance of these synapses. Our results suggest that C1ql3 is a signaling protein essential for subsets of synaptic projections and the behaviors controlled by these projections.

Physiological and pathological roles of tissue plasminogen activator and its inhibitor neuroserpin in the nervous system

Although its roles in the vascular space are most well-known, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is widely expressed in the developing and adult nervous system, where its activity is believed to be regulated by neuroserpin, a predominantly brain-specific member of the serpin family of protease inhibitors. In the normal physiological state, tPA has been shown to play roles in the development and plasticity of the nervous system. Ischemic damage, however, may lead to excess tPA activity in the brain and this is believed to contribute to neurodegeneration. In this article, we briefly review the physiological and pathological roles of tPA in the nervous system, which includes neuronal migration, axonal growth, synaptic plasticity, neuroprotection and neurodegeneration, as well as a contribution to neurological disease. We summarize tPA's multiple mechanisms of action and also highlight the contributions of the inhibitor neuroserpin to these processes.

Food restriction modifies ultrastructure of hippocampal synapses

Consumption of high-energy diets may compromise health and may also impair cognition; these impairments have been linked to tasks that require hippocampal function. Conversely, food restriction has been shown to improve certain aspects of hippocampal function, including spatial memory and memory persistence. These diet-dependent functional changes raise the possibility that the synaptic structure underlying hippocampal function is also affected. To examine how short-term food restriction (FR) alters the synaptic structure of the hippocampus, we used quantitative electron microscopy to analyze the organization of neuropil in the CA1 stratum radiatum of the hippocampus in young rats, consequent to reduced food. While four weeks of FR did not modify the density, size, or shape of postsynaptic spines, the synapses established by these spines were altered, displaying increased mean length, and more frequent perforations of postsynaptic densities. That the number of perforated synapses (believed to be an indicator of synaptic enhancement) increased, and that the CA1 spine population had on average significantly longer PSDs suggests that synaptic efficacy of axospinous synapses also increased in the CA1. Taken together, our ultrastructural data reveal previously unrecognized structural changes at hippocampal synapses as a function of food restriction, supporting a link between metabolic balance and synaptic plasticity.

Tissue plasminogen activator inhibits NMDA-receptor-mediated increases in calcium levels in cultured hippocampal neurons

NMDA receptors (NMDARs) play a critical role in neurotransmission, acting as essential mediators of many forms of synaptic plasticity, and also modulating aspects of development, synaptic transmission and cell death. NMDAR-induced responses are dependent on a range of factors including subunit composition and receptor location. Tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) is a serine protease that has been reported to interact with NMDARs and modulate NMDAR activity. In this study we report that tPA inhibits NMDAR-mediated changes in intracellular calcium levels in cultures of primary hippocampal neurons stimulated by low (5 μM) but not high (50 μM) concentrations of NMDA. tPA also inhibited changes in calcium levels stimulated by presynaptic release of glutamate following treatment with bicucculine/4-aminopyridine (4-AP). Inhibition was dependent on the proteolytic activity of tPA but was unaffected by α₂-antiplasmin, an inhibitor of the tPA substrate plasmin, and receptor-associated protein (RAP), a pan-ligand blocker of the low-density lipoprotein receptor, two proteins previously reported to modulate NMDAR activity. These findings suggest that tPA can modulate changes in intracellular calcium levels in a subset of NMDARs expressed in cultured embryonic hippocampal neurons through a mechanism that involves the proteolytic activity of tPA and synaptic NMDARs.

Activity-induced convergence of APP and BACE-1 in acidic microdomains via an endocytosis-dependent pathway

The convergence of APP (substrate) and BACE-1 (enzyme) is a rate-limiting, obligatory event triggering the amyloidogenic pathway-a key step in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. However, as both APP/BACE-1 are highly expressed in brain, mechanisms precluding their unabated convergence are unclear. Exploring dynamic localization of APP/BACE-1 in cultured hippocampal neurons, we found that after synthesis via the secretory pathway, dendritic APP/BACE-1-containing vesicles are largely segregated in physiologic states. While BACE-1 is sorted into acidic recycling endosomes, APP is conveyed in Golgi-derived vesicles. However, upon activity induction-a known trigger of the amyloidogenic pathway-APP is routed into BACE-1-positive recycling endosomes via a clathrin-dependent mechanism. A partitioning/convergence of APP/BACE-1 vesicles is also apparent in control/AD brains, respectively. Considering BACE-1 is optimally active in an acidic environment, our experiments suggest that neurons have evolved trafficking strategies that normally limit APP/BACE-1 proximity and also uncover a pathway routing APP into BACE-1-containing organelles, triggering amyloidogenesis.

Microglia: an active player in the regulation of synaptic activity

Synaptic plasticity is critical for elaboration and adaptation in the developing and developed brain. It is well established that astrocytes play an important role in the maintenance of what has been dubbed “the tripartite synapse”. Increasing evidence shows that a fourth cell type, microglia, is critical to this maintenance as well. Microglia are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS). Because of their well-characterized inflammatory functions, research has primarily focused on their innate immune properties. The role of microglia in the maintenance of synapses in development and in homeostasis is not as well defined. A number of significant findings have shed light on the critical role of microglia at the synapse. It is becoming increasingly clear that microglia play a seminal role in proper synaptic development and elimination.

Hippocampal A-type current and Kv4.2 channel modulation by the sulfonylurea compound NS5806

We examined the effects of the sulfonylurea compound NS5806 on neuronal A-type channel function. Using whole-cell patch-clamp we studied the effects of NS5806 on the somatodendritic A-type current (I(SA)) in cultured hippocampal neurons and the currents mediated by Kv4.2 channels coexpressed with different auxiliary β-subunits, including both Kv channel interacting proteins (KChIPs) and dipeptidyl aminopeptidase-related proteins (DPPs), in HEK 293 cells. The amplitude of the I(SA) component in hippocampal neurons was reduced in the presence of 20 μM NS5806. I(SA) decay kinetics were slowed and the recovery kinetics accelerated, but the voltage dependence of steady-state inactivation was shifted to more negative potentials by NS5806. The peak amplitudes of currents mediated by ternary Kv4.2 channel complexes, associated with DPP6-S (short splice-variant) and either KChIP2, KChIP3 or KChIP4, were potentiated and their macroscopic inactivation slowed by NS5806, whereas the currents mediated by binary Kv4.2 channels, associated only with DPP6-S, were suppressed, and the NS5806-mediated slowing of macroscopic inactivation was less pronounced. Neither potentiation nor suppression and no effect on current decay kinetics in the presence of NS5806 were observed for Kv4.2 channels associated with KChIP3 and the N-type inactivation-conferring DPP6a splice-variant. For all recombinant channel complexes, NS5806 slowed the recovery from inactivation and shifted the voltage dependence of steady-state inactivation to more negative potentials. Our results demonstrate the activity of NS5806 on native I(SA) and possible molecular correlates in the form of recombinant Kv4.2 channels complexed with different KChIPs and DPPs, and they shed some light on the mechanism of NS5806 action.

The Ca2+ and Rho GTPase signaling pathways underlying activity-dependent actin remodeling at dendritic spines

Most excitatory synapses reside on small protrusions located on the dendritic shaft of neurons called dendritic spines. Neuronal activity regulates the number and structure of spines in both developing and mature brains. Such morphological changes are mediated by the modification of the actin cytoskeleton, the major structural component of spines. Because the number and size of spines is tightly correlated with the strength of synaptic transmission, the activity-dependent structural remodeling of a spine plays an important role in the modulation of synaptic transmission. The regulation of spine morphogenesis utilizes multiple intracellular signaling pathways that alter the dynamics of actin remodeling. Here, we will review recent studies examining the signaling pathways underlying activity-dependent actin remodeling at excitatory postsynaptic neurons.

PSD-95 is required to sustain the molecular organization of the postsynaptic density

PSD-95, a membrane-associated guanylate kinase, is the major scaffolding protein in the excitatory postsynaptic density (PSD) and a potent regulator of synaptic strength. Here we show that PSD-95 is in an extended configuration and positioned into regular arrays of vertical filaments that contact both glutamate receptors and orthogonal horizontal elements layered deep inside the PSD in rat hippocampal spine synapses. RNA interference knockdown of PSD-95 leads to loss of entire patches of PSD material, and electron microscopy tomography shows that the patchy loss correlates with loss of PSD-95-containing vertical filaments, horizontal elements associated with the vertical filaments, and putative AMPA receptor-type, but not NMDA receptor-type, structures. These observations show that the orthogonal molecular scaffold constructed from PSD-95-containing vertical filaments and their associated horizontal elements is essential for sustaining the three-dimensional molecular organization of the PSD. Our findings provide a structural basis for understanding the functional role of PSD-95 at the PSD.

Trafficking of AMPA receptors at plasma membranes of hippocampal neurons

The number of AMPA receptors at synapses depends on receptor cycling. Because receptors diffuse rapidly in plasma membranes, their exocytosis and endocytosis need not occur near synapses. Here, pre-embedding immunogold electron microscopy is applied to dissociated rat hippocampal cultures to provide sensitive, high-resolution snapshots of the distribution of surface AMPA receptors in spines, dendrites, and cell bodies that will be informative about trafficking of AMPA receptors. The density of the label for GluR2 varies, but is consistent throughout cell body and dendrites in each individual neuron, except at postsynaptic densities (PSDs), where it is typically higher. Glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2) labels at PSDs significantly increase after synaptic activation by glycine treatment and increase further upon depolarization by high K(+). Islands of densely packed labels have consistent size and density but vary in frequency under different experimental conditions. These patches of label, which occur on plasma membranes of cell bodies and dendrites but not near PSDs, are taken to be the aftermath of exocytosis of AMPA receptors. A subpopulation of clathrin-coated pits in cell bodies and dendrites label for GluR2, and the number and amount of label in individual pits increase after NMDA treatment. Coated pits near synapses typically lack GluR2 label under basal conditions, but ∼40% of peri-PSD pits label for GluR2 after NMDA treatment. Thus, exocytosis and endocytosis of AMPA receptors occur mainly at extrasynaptic locations on cell bodies and dendrites. Receptors are not preferentially exocytosed near PSDs, but may be removed via endocytosis at peri-PSD locations after activation of NMDA receptors.

NCAM/spectrin complex disassembly results in PSD perforation and postsynaptic endocytic zone formation

Mechanisms inducing perforation of the postsynaptic density (PSD) are poorly understood. We show that neural cell adhesion molecule- deficient (NCAM-/-) hippocampal neurons have an abnormally high percentage of synapses with perforated PSDs. The percentage of synapses with perforated PSDs is also increased in wild-type (NCAM+/+) neurons after the disruption of the NCAM/spectrin complex indicating that the NCAM-assembled spectrin cytoskeleton maintains the structural integrity of PSDs. We demonstrate that PSD perforations contain endocytic zones involved in α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) internalization. Induction of long-term potentiation in NCAM+/+ neurons accompanied by insertion of AMPAR into the neuronal cell surface is subsequently followed by formation of perforated synapses and AMPAR endocytosis suggesting that perforation of PSDs is important for membrane homeostasis in activated synapses. In NCAM-/- or NCAM+/+ neurons with dissociated spectrin meshwork, AMPAR endocytosis is enhanced under conditions of basal activity. An abnormally high rate of postsynaptic membrane endocytosis may thus contribute to brain pathologies associated with mutations in NCAM or spectrin.

Localization of plasminogen in mouse hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and hypothalamus

Although the tissue plasminogen activator/plasminogen system contributes to numerous brain functions, such as learning, memory, and anxiety behavior, little attention has as yet been given to the localization of plasminogen in the brain. We have investigated the localization of plasminogen in the adult mouse brain by using immunohistochemistry. In the hippocampus, plasminogen immunoreactivity was seen in the pyramidal cell layer as numerous punctate structures in neuronal somata. An electron-microscopic study further demonstrated that the plasminogen-immunoreactive punctate structures represented secretory vesicles and/or vesicle clusters. In the cerebral cortex, plasminogen immunoreactivity was evident in the somata of the layer II/III and V neurons. A quantitative analysis revealed that parvalbumin (PV)-positive neurons had more plasminogen-immunoreactive puncta compared with those of PV-negative neurons in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Plasminogen immunoreactivity was present throughout the hypothalamus, being particularly prominent in the neuronal somata of the organum vasculosum laminae terminalis, ventromedial preoptic nucleus, supraoptic nucleus, subfornical organ, medial part of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), posterior part of the PVN, and arcuate hypothalamic nucleus. Thus, plasminogen is highly expressed in specific populations of hippocampal, cortical, and hypothalamic neurons, and plasminogen-containing vesicles are mainly observed at neuronal somata.

Blockade of endogenous neuraminidase leads to an increase of neuronal excitability and activity-dependent synaptogenesis in the rat hippocampus

Polysialic acids are widely distributed in neuronal tissue. Due to their position on glycoproteins and gangliosides on the outer cell membranes and anionic nature, polysialic acids are involved in multiple cell signaling events. The level of sialylation of the cellular surface is regulated by endogenous neuraminidase (NEU), which catalyses the hydrolysis of terminal sialic acid residues. Using the specific blocker of endogenous NEU, N-acetyl-2,3-dehydro-2-deoxyneuraminic acid (NADNA), we show that downregulation of the endogenous NEU activity causes a significant increase in the level of hippocampal tissue sialylation. Acute application of NADNA increased the firing frequency and amplitude of spontaneous synchronous oscillations, and frequency of multiple unit activity in cultured hippocampal slices. The tonic phase of seizure-like activity in the low-magnesium model of ictogenesis was significantly increased in slices pretreated with NADNA. These data indicate that the degree of synchronization is influenced by the amount of active NEU in cultured hippocampal slices. Pretreatment with NADNA led to an increase of the density of simple and perforated synapses in the hippocampal CA1 stratum radiatum region. Co-incubation of slices with NADNA and high concentrations of calcium eliminated the effect of the NEU blocker on synaptic density, suggesting that synaptogenesis observed following downregulation of the endogenous NEU activity is an activity-dependent process.

Ventral striatal plasticity and spatial memory

Spatial memory formation is a dynamic process requiring a series of cellular and molecular steps, such as gene expression and protein translation, leading to morphological changes that have been envisaged as the structural bases for the engram. Despite the role suggested for medial temporal lobe plasticity in spatial memory, recent behavioral observations implicate specific components of the striatal complex in spatial information processing. However, the potential occurrence of neural plasticity within this structure after spatial learning has never been investigated. In this study we demonstrate that blockade of cAMP response element binding protein-induced transcription or inhibition of protein synthesis or extracellular proteolytic activity in the ventral striatum impairs long-term spatial memory. These findings demonstrate that, in the ventral striatum, similarly to what happens in the hippocampus, several key molecular events crucial for the expression of neural plasticity are required in the early stages of spatial memory formation.

The role of tissue-type plasminogen activator system in amphetamine-induced conditional place preference extinction and reinstatement

Extracellular serine proteases of the plasminogen activator family (tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) may modulate synaptic adhesion and associate with learning behavior. Psychostimulants strongly induce their expression in the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway, but cocaine preferentially induces uPA, whereas morphine and amphetamine preferentially induce tPA. tPA-expressing animals displayed enhanced conditional place preference (CPP) for amphetamine compared with uPA-overexpressing animals. Thus, modulation of the plasminogen system in the brain might be a potential target against drugs of abuse. In the present study, we aim to identify whether tPA is involved in the acquisition/learning phase or in the expression/retrieval phase of conditioned drug preference. For this purpose, animals were injected with lentiviruses expressing or silencing tPA in the NAc and place preference was assessed. We found that tPA expression is associated with acquisition of place preference and animals overexpressing tPA spend >87% of the time in the drug-associated compartment, compared with 60% for control animals. When ectopic expression of tPA has been inhibited by doxycycline during acquisition, animals do no more associate the environment with the drug. Suppression of endogenous tPA expression in animals treated with LV-siRNA fully suppresses place preference, and these animals appear to avoid the drug-associated box. tPA overexpression delays extinction, but priming with low doses of amphetamine reinstates place preference even after full extinction. Together, these data clearly indicate that tPA plays an important role in acquisition of amphetamine-induced CPP, but its role in CPP expression does not seem important.

Toward safer thrombolytic agents in stroke: molecular requirements for NMDA receptor-mediated neurotoxicity

Current thrombolytic therapy for acute ischemic stroke with tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) has clear global benefits. Nevertheless, evidences argue that in addition to its prohemorrhagic effect, tPA might enhance excitotoxic necrosis. In the brain parenchyma, tPA, by binding to and then cleaving the amino-terminal domain (ATD) of the NR1 subunit of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors, increases calcium influx to toxic levels. We show here that tPA binds the ATD of the NR1 subunit by a two-sites system (K(D)=24 nmol/L). Although tenecteplase (TNK) and reteplase also display two-sites binding profiles, the catalytically inactive mutant TNKS478A displays a one-site binding profile and desmoteplase (DSPA), a kringle 2 (K2) domain-free plasminogen activator derived from vampire bat, does not interact with NR1. Moreover, we show that in contrast to tPA, DSPA does not promote excitotoxicity. These findings, together with three-dimensional (3D) modeling, show that a critical step for interaction of tPA with NR1 is the binding of its K2 domain, followed by the binding of its catalytic domain, which in turn cleaves the NR1 subunit at its ATD, leading to a subsequent potentiation of NMDA-induced calcium influx and neurotoxicity. This could help design safer new generation thrombolytic agents for stroke treatment.

Analysis of cultured neuronal networks using intraburst firing characteristics

It is an open question whether neuronal networks, cultured on multielectrode arrays, retain any capability to usefully process information (learning and memory). A necessary prerequisite for learning is that stimulation can induce lasting changes in the network. To observe these changes, one needs a method to describe the network in sufficient detail, while stable in normal circumstances. We analyzed the spontaneous bursting activity that is encountered in dissociated cultures of rat neocortical cells. Burst profiles (BPs) were made by estimating the instantaneous array-wide firing frequency. The shape of the BPs was found to be stable on a time scale of hours. Spatiotemporal detail is provided by analyzing the instantaneous firing frequency per electrode. The resulting phase profiles (PPs) were estimated by aligning BPs to their peak spiking rate over a period of 15 min. The PPs reveal a stable spatiotemporal pattern of activity during bursts over a period of several hours, making them useful for plasticity and learning studies. We also show that PPs can be used to estimate conditional firing probabilities. Doing so, yields an approach in which network bursting behavior and functional connectivity can be studied.

Lithium inhibits Smad3/4 transactivation via increased CREB activity induced by enhanced PKA and AKT signaling

Smad proteins are intracellular transducers for transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signaling and play a critical role in differentiation, tissue repair and apoptosis of the central nervous system. Both TGF-beta and its regulated gene, plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1), have been implicated in the etiology and progression of neurodegenerative diseases and mood disorders. We previously reported that GSK-3beta protein depletion suppresses Smad3/4-dependent gene transcription and causes a reduction in PAI-1 expression. Here, we provide evidence that lithium, the drug for the treatment and prophylaxis of bipolar disorder, inhibits Smad-dependent signaling by regulating cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA), AKT-glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta), and CRE-dependent signaling pathways in neuron-enriched cerebral cortical cultures of rats. We demonstrate that lithium-induced activation of these pathways inhibits Smad3/4-dependent gene transcription through an increase in pCREB(Ser133) protein levels, an enhanced interaction between pCREB(Ser133) and p300/CBP, which causes Smad3/4-p300/CBP complex disruption and transcriptional suppression of Smad3/4-dependent genes. Therapeutic implications of our findings are discussed.

beta-Catenin regulates excitatory postsynaptic strength at hippocampal synapses

The precise contribution of the cadherin-beta-catenin synapse adhesion complex in the functional and structural changes associated with the pre- and postsynaptic terminals remains unclear. Here we report a requirement for endogenous beta-catenin in regulating synaptic strength and dendritic spine morphology in cultured hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Ablating beta-catenin after the initiation of synaptogenesis in the postsynaptic neuron reduces the amplitude of spontaneous excitatory synaptic responses without a concurrent change in their frequency and synapse density. The normal glutamatergic synaptic response is maintained by postsynaptic beta-catenin in a cadherin-dependent manner and requires the C-terminal PDZ-binding motif of beta-catenin but not the link to the actin cytoskeleton. In addition, ablating beta-catenin in postsynaptic neurons accompanies a block of bidirectional quantal scaling of glutamatergic responses induced by chronic activity manipulation. In older cultures at a time when neurons have abundant dendritic spines, neurons ablated for beta-catenin show thin, elongated spines and reduced proportion of mushroom spines without a change in spine density. Collectively, these findings suggest that the cadherin-beta-catenin complex is an integral component of synaptic strength regulation and plays a basic role in coupling synapse function and spine morphology.

Modulation of NR2B-regulated contextual fear in the hippocampus by the tissue plasminogen activator system

Contextual fear conditioning is regulated by the hippocampus, and NR2B, a subunit of the NMDA receptor (NR), is involved in this process. We show that acute stress modulates tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) activity in the hippocampus by inducing expression of its inhibitor, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Acute stress increases NR2B expression and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, a classical marker of postsynaptic plasticity, in the hippocampus. tPA forms a complex with NR2B and is necessary for binding NR2B to postsynaptic density-95, allowing for NR activation and membrane anchoring. Acute stress increases the interaction between NR2B and RACK-1, which is also dependent on tPA, further suggesting that tPA is an important factor in NMDA signaling and plasticity in the hippocampus. Finally, acutely stressed tPA(-/-) mice show a decrease in contextual fear conditioning compared with stressed WT mice. These results indicate that tPA is a key modulator in stabilizing the NR complex during stress and participates in changes in behavior and synaptic plasticity.

Stress-induced spine loss in the medial amygdala is mediated by tissue-plasminogen activator

The amygdala, which exerts a regulatory influence on the stress response, is itself affected by stress. It has been reported that the serine protease tissue-plasminogen activator (tPA), a key mediator of spine plasticity, is required for stress-induced facilitation of anxiety-like behavior. Importantly, tPA is also involved in stress-induced activation of molecular signals that have the potential to contribute to neuronal remodeling in the medial amygdala (MeA). However, little is known about the precise nature of, and specific role played by tPA in, stress-induced structural plasticity in the MeA. Hence, we compared the impact of chronic restraint stress on spine density of medium spiny stellate neurons in MeA in wild-type mice with mice in which the tPA gene is disrupted (tPA-/-). In wild-type mice, chronic stress caused significant reduction in MeA spine density, which was in contrast to enhanced spine density in the neighboring basolateral amygdala (BLA). Strikingly, tPA-/- mice exhibited significant attenuation of stress-induced spine retraction in the MeA, but BLA spinogenesis was not affected. Therefore, tPA-dependence of stress-induced modulation in spine density was restricted to the MeA. Further, MeA neurons in tPA-/- mice, even when challenged with repeated stress, were able to maintain levels of spine density that were comparable to that of wild-type mice without stress. Our findings provide novel evidence for a permissive role for tPA in amygdalar spine plasticity elicited by behavioral stress.

Early presynaptic changes during plasticity in cultured hippocampal neurons

Long-lasting increase in synaptic strength is thought to underlie learning. An explosion of data has characterized changes in postsynaptic (pstS) AMPA receptor cycling during potentiation. However, changes occurring within the presynaptic (prS) terminal remain largely unknown. We show that appearance of new release sites during potentiation between cultured hippocampal neurons is due to (a) conversion of nonrecycling sites to recycling sites, (b) formation of new releasing sites from areas containing diffuse staining for the prS marker Vesicle-Associated Membrane Protein-2 and (c) budding of new recycling sites from previously existing recycling sites. In addition, potentiation is accompanied by a release probability increase in pre-existing boutons depending upon their individual probability. These prS changes precede and regulate fluorescence increase for pstS GFP-tagged-AMPA-receptor subunit GluR1. These results suggest that potentiation involves early changes in the prS terminal including remodeling and release probability increase of pre-existing synapses.

Effects of secreted oligomers of amyloid beta-protein on hippocampal synaptic plasticity: a potent role for trimers

The accumulation of amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) in brain regions serving memory and cognition is a central pathogenic feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have shown that small soluble oligomers of human Abeta that are naturally secreted by cultured cells inhibit hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) in vitro and in vivo and transiently impair the recall of a complex learned behaviour in rats. These results support the hypothesis that diffusible oligomers of Abeta initiate a synaptic dysfunction that may be an early event in AD. We now report detailed electrophysiological analyses that define conditions under which acute application of soluble Abeta inhibits hippocampal synaptic plasticity in wild-type mice. To ascertain which Abeta assemblies contribute to the impairment of LTP, we fractionated oligomers by size-exclusion chromatography and found that Abeta trimers fully inhibit LTP, whereas dimers and tetramers have an intermediate potency. Natural Abeta oligomers are sensitive to heat denaturation, primarily inhibit the induction phase of LTP, and cause a sustained impairment of LTP even after extensive washout. We observed no effects of Abeta oligomers on presynaptic vesicle release. LTP in juvenile mice is resistant to the effects of Abeta oligomers, as is brain-derived-neurotrophic-factor-induced LTP in adult hippocampus. We conclude that specific assemblies, particularly timers, of naturally secreted Abeta oligomers are potent and selective inhibitors of certain forms of hippocampal LTP.

Membrane localization of membrane type 5 matrix metalloproteinase by AMPA receptor binding protein and cleavage of cadherins

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been proposed to remodel the extracellular environment of neurons. Here, we report that the metalloproteinase membrane-type 5 MMP (MT5-MMP) binds to AMPA receptor binding protein (ABP) and GRIP (glutamate receptor interaction protein), two related postsynaptic density (PSD) PDZ (postsynaptic density-95/Discs large/zona occludens-1) domain proteins that target AMPA receptors to synapses. The MT5-MMP C terminus binds ABP PDZ5 and the two proteins coimmunoprecipitated and colocalized in heterologous cells and neurons. MT5-MMP localized in filopodia at the tips of growth cones in young [2-5 d in vitro (DIV)] cultured embryonic hippocampal neurons, and at synapses in mature (21 DIV) neurons. Its enrichment in synaptosomes also indicated a synaptic localization in the mature brain. Deletion of the PDZ binding site impaired membrane trafficking of MT5-MMP, whereas exogenous ABP splice forms that are associated either with the plasma membrane or with the cytosol, respectively, colocalized with MT5-MMP in synaptic spines or recruited MT5-MMP to intracellular compartments. We show that endogenous MT5-MMP is found in cultured neurons and brain lysates in a proenzyme form that is activated by furin and degraded by auto-proteolysis. We also identify cadherins as MT5-MMP substrates. These results suggest that ABP directs MT5-MMP proteolytic activity to growth cones and synaptic sites in neurons, where it may regulate axon pathfinding or synapse remodeling through proteolysis of cadherins or other ECM or cell adhesion molecules.

Simultaneous NMDA-dependent long-term potentiation of EPSCs and long-term depression of IPSCs in cultured rat hippocampal neurons

A fundamental issue in understanding activity-dependent long-term plasticity of neuronal networks is the interplay between excitatory and inhibitory synaptic drives in the network. Using dual whole-cell recordings in cultured hippocampal neurons, we examined synaptic changes occurring as a result of a transient activation of NMDA receptors in the network. This enhanced transient activation led to a long-lasting increase in synchrony of spontaneous activity of neurons in the network. Simultaneous long-term potentiation of excitatory synaptic strength and a pronounced long-term depression of inhibitory synaptic currents (LTDi) were produced, which were independent of changes in postsynaptic potential and Ca2+ concentrations. Surprisingly, miniature inhibitory synaptic currents were not changed by the conditioning, whereas both frequency and amplitudes of miniature EPSCs were enhanced. LTDi was mediated by activation of a presynaptic GABAB receptor, because it was blocked by saclofen and CGP55845 [(2S)-3-{[(15)-1-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)ethyl]amino-2-hydroxypropyl)(phenylmethyl)phosphinic acid]. The cAMP antagonist Rp-adenosine 3 ', 5 ' -cyclic monophosphothioate abolished all measured effects of NMDA-dependent conditioning, whereas a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor was ineffective. Finally, network-induced plasticity was not occluded by a previous spike-timing-induced plasticity, indicating that the two types of plasticity may not share the same mechanism. These results demonstrate that network plasticity involves opposite affects on inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmission.

Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits

Neuronal circuits in the brain are shaped by experience during 'critical periods' in early postnatal life. In the primary visual cortex, this activity-dependent development is triggered by the functional maturation of local inhibitory connections and driven by a specific, late-developing subset of interneurons. Ultimately, the structural consolidation of competing sensory inputs is mediated by a proteolytic reorganization of the extracellular matrix that occurs only during the critical period. The reactivation of this process, and subsequent recovery of function in conditions such as amblyopia, can now be studied with realistic circuit models that might generalize across systems.

The ubiquitin ligase Rnf6 regulates local LIM kinase 1 levels in axonal growth cones

LIM kinase 1 (LIMK1) controls important cellular functions such as morphogenesis, cell motility, tumor cell metastasis, development of neuronal projections, and growth cone actin dynamics. We have investigated the role of the RING finger protein Rnf6 during neuronal development and detected high Rnf6 protein levels in developing axonal projections of motor and DRG neurons during mouse embryogenesis as well as cultured hippocampal neurons. RNAi-mediated knock-down experiments in primary hippocampal neurons identified Rnf6 as a regulator of axon outgrowth. Consistent with a role in axonal growth, we found that Rnf6 binds to, polyubiquitinates, and targets LIMK1 for proteasomal degradation in growth cones of primary hippocampal neurons. Rnf6 is functionally linked to LIMK1 during the development of axons, as the changes in axon outgrowth induced by up- or down-regulation of Rnf6 levels can be restored by modulation of LIMK1 expression. Thus, these results assign a specific role for Rnf6 in the control of cellular LIMK1 concentrations and indicate a new function for the ubiquitin/proteasome system in regulating local growth cone actin dynamics.

Metaplastic facilitation and ultrastructural changes in synaptic properties are associated with long-term modulation of the lamprey locomotor network

The neuropeptide substance P evokes a long-term protein synthesis-dependent increase in the cycle frequency of locomotor network activity in the lamprey. Although cellular and synaptic mechanisms that could induce this effect have been identified, nothing is known of the underlying maintenance mechanisms. These mechanisms have been examined here. Substance P potentiates low-frequency-evoked EPSPs from excitatory network interneurons. It also converts the depression of the EPSP during spike trains into facilitation, an example of metaplasticity. The metaplasticity was associated with a reduction of the transmitter release probability but an increase in the number of release sites. Although the potentiation of low-frequency-evoked EPSPs recovered within 1 hr, the metaplastic facilitation had not recovered 3-4 hr after substance P application. The metaplasticity thus extended into the protein synthesis-dependent maintenance phase of the network modulation, making it the only identified cellular or synaptic effect of substance P to last this long. It also had the same induction and maintenance features as the network burst frequency modulation, further suggesting that the two effects were related. Long-term changes in synaptic properties are often associated with changes in synaptic organization. We have thus also examined the effects of substance P on synaptic ultrastructure up to 5 hr after substance P application. Substance P had several significant effects. These included an increase in the number of docked vesicles and a reduction of the synaptic gap. Substance P thus has long-term effects on synaptic organization and function. The relevance of these effects to the long-term locomotor network modulation is discussed.

The actin-binding protein profilin I is localized at synaptic sites in an activity-regulated manner

Morphological changes at synaptic specializations have been implicated in regulating synaptic strength. Actin turnover at dendritic spines is regulated by neuronal activity and contributes to spine size, shape and motility. The reorganization of actin filaments requires profilins, which stimulate actin polymerization. Neurons express two independent gene products - profilin I and profilin II. A role for profilin II in activity-dependent mechanisms at spine synapses has recently been described. Although profilin I interacts with synaptic proteins, little is known about its cellular and subcellular localization in neurons. Here, we investigated the subcellular distribution of this protein in brain neurons as well as in hippocampal cultures. Our results indicate that the expression of profilin I varies in different brain regions. Thus, in cerebral cortex and hippocampus profilin I immunostaining was associated predominantly with dendrites and was present in a subset of dendritic spines. In contrast, profilin I in cerebellum was associated primarily with presynaptic structures. Profilin I immunoreactivity was partially colocalized with the synaptic molecules synaptophysin, PSD-95 and gephyrin in cultured hippocampal neurons, indicating that profilin I is present in only a subset of synapses. At dendritic spine structures, profilin I was found primarily in protrusions, which were in apposition to presynaptic terminal boutons. Remarkably, depolarization with KCl caused a moderate but significant increase in the number of synapses containing profilin I. These results show that profilin I can be present at both pre- and postsynaptic sites and suggest a role for this actin-binding protein in activity-dependent remodelling of synaptic structure.

Experience-dependent pruning of dendritic spines in visual cortex by tissue plasminogen activator

Sensory experience physically rewires the brain in early postnatal life through unknown processes. Here, we identify a robust anatomical consequence of monocular deprivation (MD) in layer II/III of visual cortex that corresponds to the rapid, functional loss of responsiveness preceding any changes in axonal input. Protrusions on pyramidal cell apical dendrites increased steadily after eye opening, but were transiently lost through competitive mechanisms after brief MD only during the physiological critical period. Proteolysis by tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) conversely declined with age and increased with MD only in young mice. Targeted disruption of tPA release or its upstream regulation by glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) prevented MD-induced spine loss that was pharmacologically rescued concomitant with critical period plasticity. An extracellular mechanism for structural remodeling that is limited to the binocular zone upon proper detection of competing inputs thus links early sensory experience to visual function.

Extracellular matrix and visual cortical plasticity: freeing the synapse

The effects of monocular deprivation (MD) on the ocular dominance of visual cortical neurons are a paradigmatic example of experience-dependent plasticity. Here we review recent data showing that extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in the control of experience-dependent plasticity both in the developing and adult visual cortex.

Extracellular proteases: biological and behavioral roles in the mammalian central nervous system

Extracellular proteases and their inhibitors have been implicated in both physiological and pathological states in the central nervous system (CNS). Given the presence of several classes of proteases, it is believed that each enzyme may undertake distinct biological roles. Some are indispensible for neuronal migration, neurite outgrowth and pathfinding, and synaptic plasticity. Others are required for neuronal death and tumor growth and invasion. Furthermore, studies from transgenic animals lacking or overexpressing one or more of the proteases have suggested that functional compensations and redundance among different members do exist. Normally, protease activity is tightly regulated by specific inhibitors to prevent disastrous proteolysis. Various insults can disrupt the fine control of proteolysis and caise pathological changes. Novel strategies have been attempted to maintain or restore protease-inhibitors homeostasis, thus minimizing damages to the CNS. They may provide us with effective therapeutic tools for fighting certain neurological disorders.

Synaptic and vascular associations of neurons containing cyclooxygenase-2 and nitric oxide synthase in rat somatosensory cortex

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a rate-limiting enzyme for prostanoid synthesis that is present in cortical pyramidal neurons and highly implicated in control of cerebral blood flow during neural activity. We examined the electron microscopic localization of COX-2 and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), a functionally related enzyme, in the somatosensory cortex of rat brain to determine the relevant functional sites. COX-2 immunoreactivity was detected in significantly more somatodendritic than axonal profiles, while nNOS was more often seen in axon terminals. The dendritic COX-2 was localized to endomembranes near synaptic inputs from axon terminals, some of which contained nNOS. Conversely, COX-2 terminals formed asymmetric, excitatory-type synapses with dendrites containing nNOS. The dendritic and axonal profiles containing COX-2 as well as those containing nNOS were minimally separated from penetrating arterioles and capillaries by filamentous glial processes. The perivascular COX-2 labeled terminals were among those that also formed axo-dendritic synapses, suggesting that the release of prostanoids and/or excitatory transmitters from a single terminal may simultaneously affect neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow. Thus, COX-2 has a compartmental distribution in somatosensory cortical neurons consistent with the local neuronal synthesis of prostanoids that are involved in neurovascular coupling and whose actions are modulated by nitric oxide.

Tissue plasminogen activator promotes the effects of corticotropin-releasing factor on the amygdala and anxiety-like behavior

Stress-induced plasticity in the brain requires a precisely orchestrated sequence of cellular events involving novel as well as well known mediators. We have previously demonstrated that tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) in the amygdala promotes stress-induced synaptic plasticity and anxiety-like behavior. Here, we show that tPA activity in the amygdala is up-regulated by a major stress neuromodulator, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), acting on CRF type-1 receptors. Compared with WT, tPA-deficient mice responded to CRF treatment with attenuated expression of c-fos (an indicator of neuronal activation) in the central and medial amygdala but had normal c-fos responses in paraventricular nuclei. They exhibited reduced anxiety-like behavior to CRF but had a sustained corticosterone response after CRF administration. This effect of tPA deficiency was not mediated by plasminogen, because plasminogen-deficient mice demonstrated normal behavioral and hormonal changes to CRF. These studies establish tPA as an important mediator of cellular, behavioral, and hormonal responses to CRF.

Regulation of late-phase LTP and long-term memory in normal and aging hippocampus: role of secreted proteins tPA and BDNF

Long-lasting forms of memory are generally believed to be mediated by protein synthesis-dependent, late-phase long-term potentiation (L-LTP). L-LTP exhibits at least two distinctive characteristics compared with early phase LTP (E-LTP): synaptic growth and requirement of gene transcription and new protein synthesis. In this review, we discuss the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the structural and functional changes of hippocampal synapses during L-LTP, in the context of long-term memory. We describe experiments that reveal the critical role of cAMP/protein kinase A and MAP kinase pathways, and the downstream transcription factor CREB. Because transcription-dependent long-term changes are input specific, we also discuss the role of "local protein synthesis" and "synaptic tagging" mechanisms that may confer synapse specificity. We then focus on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), two secreted proteins that have been repeatedly implicated in L-LTP. Biochemical and molecular biology experiments indicate that the expression and secretion of both factors are enhanced by strong tetanic stimulation that induces L-LTP as well as by training in hippocampal-dependent memory tasks. Inhibition of either tPA or BDNF by gene knockout and specific inhibitors results in a significant impairments in L-LTP and long-term memory. Further work will be required to address the relationship between BDNF and tPA in various forms of synaptic plasticity, and the mechanisms by which BDNF/tPA achieves synapse-specific modulation. Finally, we discuss how the aging process affects L-LTP and long-term memory.

Compartment-specific localization of cannabinoid 1 (CB1) and mu-opioid receptors in rat nucleus accumbens

Interactions between cannabinoid and opioid systems have been implicated in reward and drug seeking behaviors involving neuronal circuitry in the nucleus accumbens (Acb) shell and core. To determine the relevant sites, we examined the electron microscopic localization of cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptors and mu-opioid receptors in each Acb compartment in rat brain. CB1 receptor immunogold labeling was seen on the plasma membrane and within the cytoplasm of neuronal and glial profiles throughout the Acb. These neuronal profiles included somata and dendrites as well as axon terminals, many of which formed excitatory-type, asymmetric synapses with notable perforations that are often associated with synaptic plasticity. The number of CB1-labeled terminals within the neuropil of the Acb shell was significantly greater than in the core. Mu-opioid receptors were also detected in axonal and dendritic profiles. These dendrites were most prevalent in the Acb shell, where mu-receptors also were located in 21% of the dendritic profiles and 3% of the axon terminals containing CB1 receptors. More of the CB1-labeled terminals contacted dendrites expressing mu-opioid receptors in the shell (19%) compared with the core (13%). Conversely, of the synaptic mu-labeled terminals, 20% in the shell and 10% in the core contacted dendrites containing CB1 receptors. These findings provide ultrastructural evidence that cannabinoid-opioid interactions are mediated by activation of CB1 and mu-opioid receptors within the same or synaptically linked neurons in the Acb shell and core. They also suggest a particularly important role for presynaptic CB1 receptors in the reward circuit of the Acb shell.

The neurotoxicity of tissue plasminogen activator?

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a fibrin specific activator for the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, stimulates thrombolysis and rescues ischemic brain by restoring blood flow. However, emerging data suggests that under some conditions, both tPA and plasmin, which are broad spectrum protease enzymes, are potentially neurotoxic if they reach the extracellular space. Animal models suggest that in severe ischemia with injury to the blood brain barrier (BBB) there is injury attributed to the protease effects of this exogenous tPA. Besides clot lysis per se, tPA may have pleiotropic actions in the brain, including direct vasoactivity, cleaveage of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) NR1 subunit, amplification of intracellular Ca++ conductance, and activation of other extracellular proteases from the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family, e.g. MMP-9. These effects may increase excitotoxicity, further damage the BBB, and worsen edema and cerebral hemorrhage. If tPA is effective and reverses ischemia promptly, the BBB remains intact and exogenous tPA remains within the vascular space. If tPA is ineffective and ischemia is prolonged, there is the risk that exogenous tPA will injure both the neurovascular unit and the brain. Methods of neuroprotection, which prevent tPA toxicity or additional mechanical means to open cerebral vessels, are now needed.

Differential Effects of Aging and Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 on Synapses in CA1 of Rat Hippocampus

Aging-related impairments of learning and memory can be ameliorated by 28 days of intracerebroventricular (icv) infusion of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in old rats. The present study investigated whether there is an aging-related synaptic decline in the stratum radiatum of hippocampal CA1 and whether IGF-1 can ameliorate that decline. Five young (4 months), five middle-aged (18 months) and five old (29 months) Fischer 344xBrown Norway rats received saline infusion; five old (29 months) rats received IGF-1 infusion for 28 days preceding sacrifice. Pyramidal neurons, total synaptic profiles as well as synaptic profiles in multiple spine bouton (MSB) complexes in CA1 were quantified stereologically with the physical disector technique and the postsynaptic density (PSD) length was determined as well. The results indicated a decrease of total synapses between middle and old age but a maintenance of PSD length and MSB synapses throughout life. IGF-1 infusion in old rats did not reverse the aging-related decline in total synapses but did increase PSD length and the number of MSB synapses. These changes in synaptic configurations are morphological correlates of enhanced synaptic efficacy. Thus, aging and IGF-1 affect different, but complementary, aspects of synapses in hippocampal CA1.