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Depciuch J, Sowa-Kucma M, Nowak G, Papp M, Gruca P, Misztak P, Parlinska-Wojtan M. Qualitative and quantitative changes in phospholipids and proteins investigated by spectroscopic techniques in animal depression model. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2017; 176:30-37. [PMID: 28063309 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Depression becomes nowadays a high mortality civilization disease with one of the major causes being chronic stress. Raman, Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) and Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-vis) spectroscopies were used to determine the changes in the quantity and structure of phospholipids and proteins in the blood serum of rats subjected to chronic mild stress, which is a common animal depression model. Moreover, the efficiency of the imipramine treatment was evaluated. It was found that chronic mild stress not only damages the structure of the phospholipids and proteins, but also decreases their level in the blood serum. A 5weeks imipramine treatment did increase slightly the quantity of proteins, leaving the damaged phospholipids unchanged. Structural information from phospholipids and proteins was obtained by UV-vis spectroscopy combined with the second derivative of the FTIR spectra. Indeed, the structure of proteins in blood serum of stressed rats was normalized after imipramine therapy, while the impaired structure of phospholipids remained unaffected. These findings strongly suggest that the depression factor, which is chronic mild stress, may induce permanent (irreversible) damages into the phospholipid structure identified as shortened carbon chains. This study shows a possible new application of spectroscopic techniques in the diagnosis and therapy monitoring of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Depciuch
- Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31-342 Krakow, Poland.
| | - M Sowa-Kucma
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Science, Department of Neurobiology, Laboratory of Trace Elements Neurobiology, Smetna Street 12, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - G Nowak
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Science, Department of Neurobiology, Laboratory of Trace Elements Neurobiology, Smetna Street 12, 31-343 Krakow, Poland; Department of Pharmacobiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - M Papp
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Science, Department of Neurobiology, Laboratory of Trace Elements Neurobiology, Smetna Street 12, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - P Gruca
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Science, Department of Neurobiology, Laboratory of Trace Elements Neurobiology, Smetna Street 12, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - P Misztak
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Science, Department of Neurobiology, Laboratory of Trace Elements Neurobiology, Smetna Street 12, 31-343 Krakow, Poland; Department of Pharmacobiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - M Parlinska-Wojtan
- Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-31-342 Krakow, Poland
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Lang N, Rothkegel H, Reiber H, Hasan A, Sueske E, Tergau F, Ehrenreich H, Wuttke W, Paulus W. Circadian Modulation of GABA-Mediated Cortical Inhibition. Cereb Cortex 2011; 21:2299-306. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhr003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
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Cho YJ, Kim JH, Yim HE, Lee DM, Im SK, Lee KJ. Role of corticotrophin-releasing factor in the stress-induced dilation of esophageal intercellular spaces. J Korean Med Sci 2011; 26:279-83. [PMID: 21286022 PMCID: PMC3031015 DOI: 10.3346/jkms.2011.26.2.279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) plays a major role in coordinating stress responses. We aimed to test whether blocking endogenous CRF activity can prevent the stress-induced dilation of intercellular spaces in esophageal mucosa. Eighteen adult male rats were divided into 3 groups: 1) a non-stressed group (the non-stressed group), 2) a saline-pretreated stressed group (the stressed group), 3) and an astressin-pretreated stressed group (the astressin group). Immediately after completing the experiments according to the protocol, distal esophageal segments were obtained. Intercellular space diameters of esophageal mucosa were measured by transmission electron microscopy. Blood was sampled for the measurement of plasma cortisol levels. Mucosal intercellular spaces were significantly greater in the stressed group than in the non-stressed group. Mucosal intercellular spaces of the astressin group were significantly smaller than those of the stressed group. Plasma cortisol levels in the stressed group were significantly higher than in the non-stressed group. Pretreatment with astressin tended to decrease plasma cortisol levels. Acute stress in rats enlarges esophageal intercellular spaces, and this stress-induced alteration appears to be mediated by CRF. Our results suggest that CRF may play a role in the pathophysiology of reflux-induced symptoms or mucosal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Ju Cho
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Jang Hee Kim
- Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Hyun Ee Yim
- Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Da Mi Lee
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Seon Kyo Im
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Kwang Jae Lee
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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Dong H, Csernansky JG. Effects of stress and stress hormones on amyloid-beta protein and plaque deposition. J Alzheimers Dis 2009; 18:459-69. [PMID: 19584430 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2009-1152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Growing evidence indicates that physical and psychosocial stressors, in part acting through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, may accelerate the process of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this review, we summarize recent research related to the effects of stress and stress hormones on the various disease process elements associated with AD. Specifically, we focus on the relationships among chronic stressors, HPA axis activity, amyloid-beta protein, and amyloid-beta plaque deposition in mouse models of AD. The potential mechanisms by which stress and stress-related components, especially corticotrophin-releasing factor and its receptors, influence the pathogenesis of AD are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxin Dong
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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Phenolics: occurrence and immunochemical detection in environment and food. Molecules 2009; 14:439-73. [PMID: 19158655 PMCID: PMC6253769 DOI: 10.3390/molecules14010439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2008] [Revised: 01/06/2009] [Accepted: 01/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenolic compounds may be of natural or anthropogenic origin and be present in the environment as well as in food. They comprise a large and diverse group of compounds that may be either beneficial or harmful for consumers. In this review first a non-exhausting overview of interesting phenolics is given, in particular with regards to their presence in environment and food. For some of these compounds, beneficial, toxicological and/or optionally endocrine disrupting activities will be presented. Further, immunochemical detection and/or isolation methods developed will be discussed, including advantages and disadvantages thereof in comparison with conventional analytical methods such as HPLC, GC, MS. A short overview of new sensor-like methods will also be included for present and future application.
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Hillhouse EW, Grammatopoulos DK. The molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of the biological activity of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors: implications for physiology and pathophysiology. Endocr Rev 2006; 27:260-86. [PMID: 16484629 DOI: 10.1210/er.2005-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The CRH receptor (CRH-R) is a member of the secretin family of G protein-coupled receptors. Wide expression of CRH-Rs in the central nervous system and periphery ensures that their cognate agonists, the family of CRH-like peptides, are capable of exerting a wide spectrum of actions that underpin their critical role in integrating the stress response and coordinating the activity of fundamental physiological functions, such as the regulation of the cardiovascular system, energy balance, and homeostasis. Two types of mammal CRH-R exist, CRH-R1 and CRH-R2, each with unique splicing patterns and remarkably distinct pharmacological properties, but similar signaling properties, probably reflecting their distinct and sometimes contrasting biological functions. The regulation of CRH-R expression and activity is not fully elucidated, and we only now begin to fully understand the impact on mammalian pathophysiology. The focus of this review is the current and evolving understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling CRH-R biological activity and functional flexibility. This shows notable tissue-specific characteristics, highlighted by their ability to couple to distinct G proteins and activate tissue-specific signaling cascades. The type of activating agonist, receptor, and target cell appears to play a major role in determining the overall signaling and biological responses in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward W Hillhouse
- The Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9NL, UK.
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Li YW, Fitzgerald L, Wong H, Lelas S, Zhang G, Lindner MD, Wallace T, McElroy J, Lodge NJ, Gilligan P, Zaczek R. The pharmacology of DMP696 and DMP904, non-peptidergic CRF1 receptor antagonists. CNS DRUG REVIEWS 2005; 11:21-52. [PMID: 15867951 PMCID: PMC6741745 DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2005.tb00034.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
CRF(1) antagonists DMP696 and DMP904 were designed as drug development candidates for the treatment of anxiety and depression. Both compounds display nanomolar affinity for human CRF(1) receptors, and exhibit >1000-fold selectivity for CRF(1) over CRF(2) receptors and over a broad panel of other proteins. DMP696 and DMP904 block CRF-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity in cortical homogenates and cell-lines expressing CRF(1) receptors. Both compounds inhibit CRF-stimulated ACTH release from rat pituitary corticotropes. Binding and functional studies indicate that DMP696 and DMP904 behave as noncompetitive full antagonists. DMP696 and DMP904 exhibit anxiolytic-like efficacy in several rat anxiety models. In the defensive withdrawal test, both compounds reduce exit latency with lowest effective doses of 3 and 1 mg/kg, respectively. The anxiolytic-like effect is maintained over 14 days of repeated dosing. In the context of a novel environment used in this test, DMP696 and DMP904 reverse mild stress-induced increases in plasma CORT secretion but at doses 3-4-fold greater than those required for anxiolyticlike efficacy. DMP696 and DMP904 are ineffective in three depression models including the learned helplessness paradigm at doses up to 30 mg/kg. At lowest anxiolytic-like doses, DMP696 and DMP904 occupy >50% CRF(1) receptors in the brain. The in vivo IC(50) values (plasma concentrations required for occupying 50% CRF(1) receptors) estimated based upon free, but not total, plasma concentrations are an excellent correlation with the in vitro IC(50) values. Neither compound produces sedation, ataxia, chlordiazepoxide-like subjective effects or adverse effects on cognition at doses 10-fold higher than anxiolytic-like doses. Neither compound produces physiologically significant changes in cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal or renal functions at anxiolytic-like doses. DMP696 and DMP904 have favorable pharmacokinetic profiles with good oral bioavailabilities. The overall pharmacological properties suggest that both compounds may be effective anxiolytics with low behavioral side effect liabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wen Li
- Neuroscience Biology, Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, CT 06492-7660, USA.
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Taylor C, Fricker AD, Devi LA, Gomes I. Mechanisms of action of antidepressants: from neurotransmitter systems to signaling pathways. Cell Signal 2005; 17:549-57. [PMID: 15683730 PMCID: PMC3581018 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2004.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2004] [Accepted: 12/21/2004] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Antidepressants are commonly used in the treatment of anxiety and depression, medical conditions that affect approximately 17-20% of the population. The clinical effects of antidepressants take several weeks to manifest, suggesting that these drugs induce adaptive changes in brain structures affected by anxiety and depression. In order to develop shorter-acting and more effective drugs for the treatment of anxiety and depression, it is important to understand how antidepressants bring about their beneficial effects. Recent reports suggest that antidepressants can induce neurogenesis in the adult brain, although the mechanisms involved are not clearly understood. In this review, we describe the different neurotransmitter systems that are affected by anxiety and depression and how they are modulated by antidepressant treatment with a focus on signaling molecules and pathways that are activated during neurotransmitter receptor induced neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lakshmi A. Devi
- Corresponding authors. Lakshmi A. Devi is to be contacted at Department of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 19-84 Annenberg Building, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, United States. Tel.: +1 212 241 8345; fax: +1 212 996 7214. Ivone Gomes, Department of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 19-86 Annenberg Building, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, United States. Tel.: +1 212 241 6545; fax: +1 212 996 7214. (L.A. Devi)8 (I. Gomes)
| | - Ivone Gomes
- Corresponding authors. Lakshmi A. Devi is to be contacted at Department of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 19-84 Annenberg Building, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, United States. Tel.: +1 212 241 8345; fax: +1 212 996 7214. Ivone Gomes, Department of Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 19-86 Annenberg Building, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, United States. Tel.: +1 212 241 6545; fax: +1 212 996 7214. (L.A. Devi)8 (I. Gomes)
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Saavedra JM, Pavel J. Angiotensin II AT1 receptor antagonists inhibit the angiotensin-CRF-AVP axis and are potentially useful for the treatment of stress-related and mood disorders. Drug Dev Res 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.20027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Erb S, Funk D, Borkowski S, Watson SJ, Akil H. Effects of chronic cocaine exposure on corticotropin-releasing hormone binding protein in the central nucleus of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Neuroscience 2004; 123:1003-9. [PMID: 14751291 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2003.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The neuropeptide, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), has been shown to play a role in behavioral and neurobiological effects of drugs of abuse. An important modulator of CRH, the CRH binding protein (CRH-BP), has not, on the other hand, been assessed for its role in drug-associated effects. The primary objective of the present experiment was to assess whether prior, chronic exposure to cocaine modulates expression of CRH-BP, and to compare expression of the BP with that of the peptide itself. We assessed CRH-BP and CRH mRNA expression in two brain regions where CRH is known to affect responses to drugs of abuse; namely, the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). Male Long-Evans rats were given 14 daily injections of cocaine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline. One, 3, 10, 28, or 42 days post-treatment, animals were killed and adjacent brain sections through the CeA and BNST were processed for CRH-BP and CRH by in situ hybridization. In the CeA, cocaine pre-exposure increased both CRH and CRH-BP mRNA expression 1 day post-treatment. In the dorsal BNST, cocaine pre-exposure elevated levels of CRH-BP, but not CRH, mRNA 3 days post-treatment. Taken together, the results suggest that withdrawal-induced changes in the expression of the CRH-BP, and CRH itself, are relatively short-lived and that a dysregulation in basal expression of either gene is not likely responsible for long-lasting behavioral effects noted with cocaine and other drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Erb
- Centre for the Neurobiology of Stress, Department of Life Science and Psychology, University of Toronto at Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada.
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Li YW, Hill G, Wong H, Kelly N, Ward K, Pierdomenico M, Ren S, Gilligan P, Grossman S, Trainor G, Taub R, McElroy J, Zazcek R. Receptor occupancy of nonpeptide corticotropin-releasing factor 1 antagonist DMP696: correlation with drug exposure and anxiolytic efficacy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 305:86-96. [PMID: 12649356 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.102.045914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
4-(1,3-Dimethoxyprop-2-ylamine)-2,7-dimethyl-8-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-pyrazolo[1,5-a]-1,3,5-triazine (DMP696) is a highly selective and potent, nonpeptide corticotropin-releasing factor 1 (CRF(1)) antagonist. In this study, we measured in vivo CRF(1) receptor occupancy of DMP696 by using ex vivo ligand binding and quantitative autoradiography and explored the relationship of receptor occupancy with plasma and brain exposure and behavioral efficacy. In vitro affinity (IC(50)) of DMP696 to brain CRF(1) receptors measured using the brain section binding autoradiography in this study is similar to that assessed using homogenized cell membrane assays previously. The ex vivo binding assay was validated by demonstrating that potential underestimation of receptor occupancy with this procedure could be minimized by identifying an appropriate in vitro incubation time (40 min) based upon the dissociation kinetics of DMP696. Orally administrated DMP696 dose dependently occupied CRF(1) receptors in the brain, with ~60% occupancy at 3 mg/kg. In the defensive withdrawal test of anxiety, this dose of DMP696 produced approximately 50% reduction in the exit latency. The time course of plasma and brain drug levels paralleled that of receptor occupancy, with peak exposure at 90 min after dosing. The plasma-free concentration of DMP696 corresponding to 50% CRF(1) receptor occupancy (in vivo IC(50), 1.22 nM) was similar to the in vitro IC(50) (~1.0 nM). Brain concentrations of DMP696 were over 150-fold higher than the plasma-free levels. In conclusion, doses of DMP696 occupying over 50% brain CRF(1) receptors are consistent with doses producing anxiolytic efficacy in the defense withdrawal test of anxiety, and the IC(50) value estimated in vivo based on plasma-free drug concentrations is consistent with the in vitro IC(50) value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wen Li
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Wallingford, Connecticut, USA 06492-7660, USA.
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12
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Hauger RL, Grigoriadis DE, Dallman MF, Plotsky PM, Vale WW, Dautzenberg FM. International Union of Pharmacology. XXXVI. Current status of the nomenclature for receptors for corticotropin-releasing factor and their ligands. Pharmacol Rev 2003; 55:21-6. [PMID: 12615952 DOI: 10.1124/pr.55.1.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptors for corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) are members of a family of G protein-coupled receptors ("Family B") that respond to a variety of structurally dissimilar releasing factors, neuropeptides, and hormones (including secretin, growth hormone-releasing factor, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide) and signal through the cyclic AMP and/or calcium pathways. To date, three genes encoding additional CRF-like peptides (urocortins) have been identified in mammals. The urocortins and CRF bind with differential ligand selectivity at the two mammalian CRF receptors. This report was prepared by the International Union of Pharmacology Subcommittee on CRF Receptors, to summarize the current state of CRF receptor biology and to propose changes in the classification and nomenclature of CRF ligands and receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Hauger
- Department of Psychiatry and Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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Grammatopoulos DK, Chrousos GP. Functional characteristics of CRH receptors and potential clinical applications of CRH-receptor antagonists. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002; 13:436-44. [PMID: 12431840 DOI: 10.1016/s1043-2760(02)00670-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) plays a major role in coordinating the behavioral, endocrine, autonomic and immune responses to stress. CRH and CRH-related peptides and their receptors are present in the central nervous system and in a wide variety of peripheral tissues, including the immune, cardiovascular and reproductive systems, and have been associated with the pathophysiology of many disease states. These observations have led to the development of several CRH receptor type-selective antagonists, which have been used experimentally to elucidate the role of CRH and related peptides in physiological and disease processes, such as anxiety and depression, sleep disorders, addictive behavior, inflammatory and allergic disorders, neurological diseases and pre-term labor. Because of the complex network of multiple CRH receptor subtypes and their tissue- and agonist-specific signaling diversity, antagonists need to be developed that can target specific CRH receptor isoform-driven signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitris K Grammatopoulos
- Sir Quinton Hazell Molecular Medicine Research Centre, Dept of Biological Sciences, The University of Warwick, Coventry, UK CV4 7AL.
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Makino S, Hashimoto K, Gold PW. Multiple feedback mechanisms activating corticotropin-releasing hormone system in the brain during stress. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002; 73:147-58. [PMID: 12076734 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(02)00791-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Stress-associated disorders such as melancholic depression are characterized by persistent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis activation and intensive anxiety. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) appears to play an essential role in pathophysiology of such disorders. In an attempt to elucidate possible mechanisms underlying persistent activation of CRH in the central nervous system (CNS), we examined responses of hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic CRH systems to the stressors (immobilization stress or psychological stress) and interactions between these CRH systems and glucocorticoids in rats. We propose multiple feedback loops activating central CRH system: (1) attenuation of glucocorticoid-induced negative feedback on the activity of the hypothalamic and brainstem nuclei during chronic stress, (2) autoregulation of CRH biosynthesis in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) through up-regulation of Type-1 CRH receptor (CRHR-1), and (3) glucocorticoid-mediated positive effects on the amygdaloid CRH system. Stress initially activates the hypothalamic CRH system, resulting in the hypersecretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland. In addition, the psychological component of the stressor stimulates the amygdaloid CRH system. In the chronic phase of stress, down-regulation of GR in the PVN and other brain structures such as the locus coeruleus (LC) fails to restrain hyperfunction of the HPA axis, and persistent activation of the HPA axis further up-regulates the amygdaloid CRH system. Thus, the hypothalamic and the amygdaloid CRH systems cooperatively constitute stress-responsive, anxiety-producing neurocircuitry during chronic stress, which is responsible for the clinical manifestations of stress-associated disorders. Effects of tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which appear to mitigate the above mentioned multiple feedback loop forming the vicious circle to activate central CRH systems, will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Makino
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Okoh-cho, Nankoku, Japan.
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Hiroi N, Wong ML, Licinio J, Park C, Young M, Gold PW, Chrousos GP, Bornstein SR. Expression of corticotropin releasing hormone receptors type I and type II mRNA in suicide victims and controls. Mol Psychiatry 2001; 6:540-6. [PMID: 11526468 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4000908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2001] [Revised: 02/22/2001] [Accepted: 02/22/2001] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a key neuroendocrine factor implementing endocrine, immune and behavioral responses to stress. CRH exerts its action through two major receptors, CRH-R1 and CRH-R2. Recently novel non-peptidic antagonists directed against CRH-R1 or CRH-R2 have been proposed as promising agents in the treatment of depression, anxiety and eating disorder. However, so far the CRH-receptor system has not been widely studied in humans. Therefore, we employed quantitative TaqMan PCR to analyze the expression and distribution of both CRH-R1 and CRH-R2 in human brain tissue and peripheral organs. Furthermore the expression of CRH receptors was analyzed for the first time in pituitaries of suicide victims by in situ hybridization and quantitative PCR. Our data demonstrated a different expression pattern in humans as compared to rodents. Both CRH-R1 and CRH-R2 were expressed in high amounts in the brain with the strongest expression in the pituitary. As described in rodents, however the CRH-R1 in human was the predominant receptor in the brain (82.7 +/- 11.0%), whilst CRH-R2 was the predominant receptor in peripheral organs (77.0 +/- 15.8%). There was a shift in the ratio of CRH-R1/R2 in the pituitaries of suicide victims. In conclusion, both CRH-R1 and CRH-R2 are widely expressed in human tissues with a distribution substantially different from rodents. Strong expression of both CRH-R1 and CRH-R2 in human pituitaries suggests that particularly under stress, activation of the HPA axis can be maintained through both receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hiroi
- Pediatric and Reproductive Endocrinology Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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