1
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Gallo T, Michailoudi G, Valerio J, Adriano L, Heymann M, Schulz J, Marinho RDR, Callefo F, Walsh N, Öhrwall G. Aqueous Ammonium Nitrate Investigated Using Photoelectron Spectroscopy of Cylindrical and Flat Liquid Jets. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:6866-6875. [PMID: 38976651 PMCID: PMC11264267 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c01755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Ammonium nitrate in aqueous solution was investigated with synchrotron radiation based photoelectron spectroscopy using two types of liquid jet nozzles. Electron emission from a cylindrical microjet of aqueous ammonium nitrate solution was measured at two different angles relative to the horizontal polarization of the incident synchrotron radiation, 90° and 54.7° (the "magic angle"), for a range of photon energies (470-530 eV). We obtained β parameter values as a function of photon energy, based on a normalization procedure relying on simulations of background intensity with the SESSA (Simulation of Electron Spectra for Surface Analysis) package. The β values are similar to literature data for O 1s ionization of liquid water, and the β value of N 1s from NH4+ is higher than that for NO3-, by ≈0.1. The measurements also show that the photoelectron signal from NO3- exhibits a photon energy dependent cross section variation not observed in NH4+. Additional measurements using a flat jet nozzle found that the ammonium and nitrate peak area ratio was unaffected by changes in the takeoff angle, indicating a similar distribution of both ammonium and nitrate in the surface region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamires Gallo
- Synchrotron
Radiation Research, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- MAX
IV Laboratory, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Georgia Michailoudi
- Nano
and Molecular Systems Research Unit, University
of Oulu, P.O. Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Joana Valerio
- European
XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, Schenefeld 22869, Germany
| | - Luigi Adriano
- European
XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, Schenefeld 22869, Germany
| | - Michael Heymann
- IBBS,
Institut für Biomaterialien und Biomolekulare Systeme, Universität
Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | - Ricardo dos Reis
Teixeira Marinho
- Institute
of Physics, Brasilia University (UnB), 70.919-970 Brasiliá, Brazil
- Institute
of Physics, Federal University of Bahia, 40.170-115 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Flavia Callefo
- Brazilian
Synchrotron Light Laboratory, LNLS, Brazilian
Center for Research in Energy and Materials, CNPEM, CP 6192, 13085-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Noelle Walsh
- MAX
IV Laboratory, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Öhrwall
- MAX
IV Laboratory, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
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2
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De Angelis D, Longetti L, Bonano G, Pelli Cresi JS, Foglia L, Pancaldi M, Capotondi F, Pedersoli E, Bencivenga F, Krstulovic M, Menk RH, D'Addato S, Orlando S, de Simone M, Ingle RA, Bleiner D, Coreno M, Principi E, Chergui M, Masciovecchio C, Mincigrucci R. A sub-100 nm thickness flat jet for extreme ultraviolet to soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2024; 31:605-612. [PMID: 38592969 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577524001875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Experimental characterization of the structural, electronic and dynamic properties of dilute systems in aqueous solvents, such as nanoparticles, molecules and proteins, are nowadays an open challenge. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is probably one of the most established approaches to this aim as it is element-specific. However, typical dilute systems of interest are often composed of light elements that require extreme-ultraviolet to soft X-ray photons. In this spectral regime, water and other solvents are rather opaque, thus demanding radical reduction of the solvent volume and removal of the liquid to minimize background absorption. Here, we present an experimental endstation designed to operate a liquid flat jet of sub-micrometre thickness in a vacuum environment compatible with extreme ultraviolet/soft XAS measurements in transmission geometry. The apparatus developed can be easily connected to synchrotron and free-electron-laser user-facility beamlines dedicated to XAS experiments. The conditions for stable generation and control of the liquid flat jet are analyzed and discussed. Preliminary soft XAS measurements on some test solutions are shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario De Angelis
- CNR - Istituto Officina dei Materiali (IOM), Basovizza, Area Science Park, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Luca Longetti
- Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gabriele Bonano
- Dipartimento FIM, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 213/a, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | | | - Laura Foglia
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Matteo Pancaldi
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Flavio Capotondi
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Emanuele Pedersoli
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Filippo Bencivenga
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Marija Krstulovic
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Ralf Hendrik Menk
- Sezione di Trieste, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Sergio D'Addato
- Dipartimento FIM, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 213/a, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Stefano Orlando
- ISM-CNR, Trieste Branch, in Basovizza Area Science Park, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Monica de Simone
- CNR - Istituto Officina dei Materiali (IOM), Basovizza, Area Science Park, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Rebecca A Ingle
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, EMPA, Uberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Marcello Coreno
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Emiliano Principi
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Majed Chergui
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Claudio Masciovecchio
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | - Riccardo Mincigrucci
- Elettra-Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14-km 163.5, Basovizza, 34149 Trieste, Italy
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3
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Lima FA, Otte F, Vakili M, Ardana-Lamas F, Biednov M, Dall’Antonia F, Frankenberger P, Gawelda W, Gelisio L, Han H, Huang X, Jiang Y, Kloos M, Kluyver T, Knoll M, Kubicek K, Bermudez Macias IJ, Schulz J, Turkot O, Uemura Y, Valerio J, Wang H, Yousef H, Zalden P, Khakhulin D, Bressler C, Milne C. Experimental capabilities for liquid jet samples at sub-MHz rates at the FXE Instrument at European XFEL. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2023; 30:1168-1182. [PMID: 37860937 PMCID: PMC10624029 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577523008159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
The Femtosecond X-ray Experiments (FXE) instrument at the European X-ray Free-Electron Laser (EuXFEL) provides an optimized platform for investigations of ultrafast physical, chemical and biological processes. It operates in the energy range 4.7-20 keV accommodating flexible and versatile environments for a wide range of samples using diverse ultrafast X-ray spectroscopic, scattering and diffraction techniques. FXE is particularly suitable for experiments taking advantage of the sub-MHz repetition rates provided by the EuXFEL. In this paper a dedicated setup for studies on ultrafast biological and chemical dynamics in solution phase at sub-MHz rates at FXE is presented. Particular emphasis on the different liquid jet sample delivery options and their performance is given. Our portfolio of high-speed jets compatible with sub-MHz experiments includes cylindrical jets, gas dynamic virtual nozzles and flat jets. The capability to perform multi-color X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) experiments is illustrated by a set of measurements using the dispersive X-ray spectrometer in von Hamos geometry. Static XES data collected using a multi-crystal scanning Johann-type spectrometer are also presented. A few examples of experimental results on ultrafast time-resolved X-ray emission spectroscopy and wide-angle X-ray scattering at sub-MHz pulse repetition rates are given.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. A. Lima
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - F. Otte
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
- Fakultät für Physik, Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - M. Vakili
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science CFEL, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestr. 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - M. Biednov
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | | | | | - W. Gawelda
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
- Faculty of Physics, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - L. Gelisio
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - H. Han
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - X. Huang
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Y. Jiang
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - M. Kloos
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - T. Kluyver
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - M. Knoll
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - K. Kubicek
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
- Institut für Experimentalphysik, Universität Hamburg, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - J. Schulz
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - O. Turkot
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Y. Uemura
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - J. Valerio
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - H. Wang
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - H. Yousef
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - P. Zalden
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - D. Khakhulin
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - C. Bressler
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
- Institut für Experimentalphysik, Universität Hamburg, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - C. Milne
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
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4
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Konold PE, You T, Bielecki J, Valerio J, Kloos M, Westphal D, Bellisario A, Varma Yenupuri T, Wollter A, Koliyadu JCP, Koua FH, Letrun R, Round A, Sato T, Mészáros P, Monrroy L, Mutisya J, Bódizs S, Larkiala T, Nimmrich A, Alvarez R, Adams P, Bean R, Ekeberg T, Kirian RA, Martin AV, Westenhoff S, Maia FRNC. 3D-printed sheet jet for stable megahertz liquid sample delivery at X-ray free-electron lasers. IUCRJ 2023; 10:662-670. [PMID: 37721770 PMCID: PMC10619454 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252523007972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) can probe chemical and biological reactions as they unfold with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution. A principal challenge in this pursuit involves the delivery of samples to the X-ray interaction point in such a way that produces data of the highest possible quality and with maximal efficiency. This is hampered by intrinsic constraints posed by the light source and operation within a beamline environment. For liquid samples, the solution typically involves some form of high-speed liquid jet, capable of keeping up with the rate of X-ray pulses. However, conventional jets are not ideal because of radiation-induced explosions of the jet, as well as their cylindrical geometry combined with the X-ray pointing instability of many beamlines which causes the interaction volume to differ for every pulse. This complicates data analysis and contributes to measurement errors. An alternative geometry is a liquid sheet jet which, with its constant thickness over large areas, eliminates the problems related to X-ray pointing. Since liquid sheets can be made very thin, the radiation-induced explosion is reduced, boosting their stability. These are especially attractive for experiments which benefit from small interaction volumes such as fluctuation X-ray scattering and several types of spectroscopy. Although their use has increased for soft X-ray applications in recent years, there has not yet been wide-scale adoption at XFELs. Here, gas-accelerated liquid sheet jet sample injection is demonstrated at the European XFEL SPB/SFX nano focus beamline. Its performance relative to a conventional liquid jet is evaluated and superior performance across several key factors has been found. This includes a thickness profile ranging from hundreds of nanometres to 60 nm, a fourfold increase in background stability and favorable radiation-induced explosion dynamics at high repetition rates up to 1.13 MHz. Its minute thickness also suggests that ultrafast single-particle solution scattering is a possibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick E. Konold
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tong You
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Joana Valerio
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Marco Kloos
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Daniel Westphal
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Alfredo Bellisario
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tej Varma Yenupuri
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - August Wollter
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Romain Letrun
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Adam Round
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Tokushi Sato
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Petra Mészáros
- Department of Chemistry – BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Leonardo Monrroy
- Department of Chemistry – BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jennifer Mutisya
- Department of Chemistry – BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Szabolcs Bódizs
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Taru Larkiala
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Amke Nimmrich
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Bagley Hall, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Roberto Alvarez
- Department of Physics, Arizona State University, 550 E. Tyler Drive, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Patrick Adams
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Richard Bean
- European XFEL, Holzkoppel 4, 22869 Schenefeld, Germany
| | - Tomas Ekeberg
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Richard A. Kirian
- Department of Physics, Arizona State University, 550 E. Tyler Drive, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Andrew V. Martin
- School of Science, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Sebastian Westenhoff
- Department of Chemistry – BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Filipe R. N. C. Maia
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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5
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Vogwell J, Rego L, Smirnova O, Ayuso D. Ultrafast control over chiral sum-frequency generation. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadj1429. [PMID: 37595045 PMCID: PMC10438458 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adj1429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
We introduce an ultrafast all-optical approach for efficient chiral recognition that relies on the interference between two low-order nonlinear processes that are ubiquitous in nonlinear optics: sum-frequency generation and third-harmonic generation. In contrast to traditional sum-frequency generation, our approach encodes the medium's handedness in the intensity of the emitted harmonic signal, rather than in its phase, and it enables full control over the enantiosensitive response. We show how, by sculpting the sub-optical-cycle oscillations of the driving laser field, we can force one molecular enantiomer to emit bright light while its mirror twin remains dark, thus reaching the ultimate efficiency limit of chiral sensitivity via low-order nonlinear light-matter interactions. Our work paves the way for ultrafast and highly efficient imaging and control of the chiral electronic clouds of chiral molecules using lasers with moderate intensities, in all states of matter: from gases to liquids to solids, with molecular specificity and on ultrafast time scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Vogwell
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ London, UK
| | - Laura Rego
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ London, UK
- Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Olga Smirnova
- Max-Born-Institut, Max-Born-Str. 2A, 12489 Berlin, Germany
- Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - David Ayuso
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ London, UK
- Max-Born-Institut, Max-Born-Str. 2A, 12489 Berlin, Germany
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6
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Picchiotti A, Precek M, Zymaková A, Erichlandwehr T, Liu Y, Wiste T, Kahan P, Fernandez-Cuesta I, Andreasson J. Engraving of stainless-steel wires to improve optical quality of closed-loop wire-guided flow jet systems for optical and X-ray spectroscopy. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1079029. [PMID: 37388247 PMCID: PMC10300417 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1079029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper describes performance enhancement developments to a closed-loop pump-driven wire-guided flow jet (WGJ) for ultrafast X-ray spectroscopy of liquid samples. Achievements include dramatically improved sample surface quality and reduced equipment footprint from 7 × 20 cm2 to 6 × 6 cm2, cost, and manufacturing time. Qualitative and quantitative measurements show that micro-scale wire surface modification yields significant improvements to the topography of the sample liquid surface. By manipulating their wettability, it is possible to better control the liquid sheet thickness and to obtain a smooth liquid sample surface, as demonstrated in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Picchiotti
- ELI Beamlines Facility, The Extreme Light Infrastructure ERIC, Dolni Brezany, Czechia
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Physics, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Martin Precek
- ELI Beamlines Facility, The Extreme Light Infrastructure ERIC, Dolni Brezany, Czechia
| | - Anna Zymaková
- ELI Beamlines Facility, The Extreme Light Infrastructure ERIC, Dolni Brezany, Czechia
| | - Tim Erichlandwehr
- Department of Physics, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yingliang Liu
- ELI Beamlines Facility, The Extreme Light Infrastructure ERIC, Dolni Brezany, Czechia
- Institute of Biotechnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vestec, Czechia
| | - Tuomas Wiste
- ELI Beamlines Facility, The Extreme Light Infrastructure ERIC, Dolni Brezany, Czechia
| | - Petr Kahan
- Institute of Physics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Irene Fernandez-Cuesta
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Physics, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jakob Andreasson
- ELI Beamlines Facility, The Extreme Light Infrastructure ERIC, Dolni Brezany, Czechia
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7
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Buttersack T, Haak H, Bluhm H, Hergenhahn U, Meijer G, Winter B. Imaging temperature and thickness of thin planar liquid water jets in vacuum. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS (MELVILLE, N.Y.) 2023; 10:034901. [PMID: 37398627 PMCID: PMC10314331 DOI: 10.1063/4.0000188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
We present spatially resolved measurements of the temperature of a flat liquid water microjet for varying ambient pressures, from vacuum to 100% relative humidity. The entire jet surface is probed in a single shot by a high-resolution infrared camera. Obtained 2D images are substantially influenced by the temperature of the apparatus on the opposite side of the infrared camera; a protocol to correct for the thermal background radiation is presented. In vacuum, we observe cooling rates due to water evaporation on the order of 105 K/s. For our system, this corresponds to a temperature decrease in approximately 15 K between upstream and downstream positions of the flowing leaf. Making reasonable assumptions on the absorption of the thermal background radiation in the flatjet, we can extend our analysis to infer a thickness map. For a reference system, our value for the thickness is in good agreement with the one reported from white light interferometry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Bernd Winter
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and
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8
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Kim YH, Kim H, Park SC, Kwon Y, Yeom K, Cho W, Kwon T, Yun H, Sung JH, Lee SK, Luu TT, Nam CH, Kim KT. High-harmonic generation from a flat liquid-sheet plasma mirror. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2328. [PMID: 37087465 PMCID: PMC10122666 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38087-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/24/2023] Open
Abstract
High-harmonic radiation can be generated when an ultra-intense laser beam is reflected from an over-dense plasma, known as a plasma mirror. It is considered a promising technique for generating intense attosecond pulses in the extreme ultraviolet and X-ray wavelength ranges. However, a solid target used for the formation of the over-dense plasma is completely damaged by the interaction. Thus, it is challenging to use a solid target for applications such as time-resolved studies and attosecond streaking experiments that require a large amount of data. Here we demonstrate that high-harmonic radiation can be continuously generated from a liquid plasma mirror in both the coherent wake emission and relativistic oscillating mirror regimes. These results will pave the way for the development of bright, stable, and high-repetition-rate attosecond light sources, which can greatly benefit the study of ultrafast laser-matter interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Hwan Kim
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon Kim
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Cheol Park
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Yongjin Kwon
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyunghoon Yeom
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Wosik Cho
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Taeyong Kwon
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeok Yun
- Advanced Photonics Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Hee Sung
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Advanced Photonics Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Ku Lee
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Advanced Photonics Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Tran Trung Luu
- Department of Physics, The University of Hong Kong, SAR Hong Kong, China
| | - Chang Hee Nam
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Taec Kim
- Center for Relativistic Laser Science, Institute for Basic Science, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Physics and Photon Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea.
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9
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Hoffman DJ, Van Driel TB, Kroll T, Crissman CJ, Ryland ES, Nelson KJ, Cordones AA, Koralek JD, DePonte DP. Microfluidic liquid sheets as large-area targets for high repetition XFELs. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1048932. [PMID: 36567947 PMCID: PMC9780453 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1048932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The high intensity of X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs) can damage solution-phase samples on every scale, ranging from the molecular or electronic structure of a sample to the macroscopic structure of a liquid microjet. By using a large surface area liquid sheet microjet as a sample target instead of a standard cylindrical microjet, the incident X-ray spot size can be increased such that the incident intensity falls below the damage threshold. This capability is becoming particularly important for high repetition rate XFELs, where destroying a target with each pulse would require prohibitively large volumes of sample. We present here a study of microfluidic liquid sheet dimensions as a function of liquid flow rate. Sheet lengths, widths and thickness gradients are shown for three styles of nozzles fabricated from isotropically etched glass. In-vacuum operation and sample recirculation using these nozzles is demonstrated. The effects of intense XFEL pulses on the structure of a liquid sheet are also briefly examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Hoffman
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Tim B. Van Driel
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Thomas Kroll
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Christopher J. Crissman
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, United States,United States Military Academy, West Point, NY, United States
| | - Elizabeth S. Ryland
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford PULSE Institute, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Kacie J. Nelson
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford PULSE Institute, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Amy A. Cordones
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford PULSE Institute, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Jake D. Koralek
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, United States
| | - Daniel P. DePonte
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, United States,*Correspondence: Daniel P. DePonte,
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10
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Barnard JCT, Lee JP, Alexander O, Jarosch S, Garratt D, Picciuto R, Kowalczyk K, Ferchaud C, Gregory A, Matthews M, Marangos JP. Delivery of stable ultra-thin liquid sheets in vacuum for biochemical spectroscopy. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1044610. [PMID: 36452452 PMCID: PMC9701818 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1044610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of ultra-thin flat liquid sheets capable of running in vacuum has provided an exciting new target for X-ray absorption spectroscopy in the liquid and solution phases. Several methods have become available for delivering in-vacuum sheet jets using different nozzle designs. We compare the sheets produced by two different types of nozzle; a commercially available borosillicate glass chip using microfluidic channels to deliver colliding jets, and an in-house fabricated fan spray nozzle which compresses the liquid on an axis out of a slit to achieve collision conditions. We find in our tests that both nozzles are suitable for use in X-ray absorption spectroscopy with the fan spray nozzle producing thicker but more stable jets than the commercial nozzle. We also provide practical details of how to run these nozzles in vacuum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan C. T. Barnard
- Extreme Light Consortium, Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Department of Physics, London, United Kingdom
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11
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Hoffman D, Bechtel HA, Huyke DA, Santiago JG, DePonte DP, Koralek JD. Liquid Heterostructures: Generation of Liquid-Liquid Interfaces in Free-Flowing Liquid Sheets. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2022; 38:12822-12832. [PMID: 36220141 PMCID: PMC9609302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c01724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Chemical reactions and biological processes are frequently governed by the structure and dynamics of the interface between two liquid phases, but these interfaces are often difficult to study due to the relative abundance of the bulk liquids. Here, we demonstrate a method for generating multilayer thin film stacks of liquids, which we call liquid heterostructures. These free-flowing layered liquid sheets are produced with a microfluidic nozzle that impinges two converging jets of one liquid onto opposite sides of a third jet of another liquid. The resulting sheet consists of two layers of the first liquid enveloping an inner layer of the second liquid. Infrared microscopy, white light reflectivity, and imaging ellipsometry measurements demonstrate that the buried liquid layer has a tunable thickness and displays well-defined liquid-liquid interfaces and that this inner layer can be only tens of nanometers thick. The demonstrated multilayer liquid sheets minimize the amount of bulk liquid relative to their buried interfaces, which makes them ideal targets for spectroscopy and scattering experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- David
J. Hoffman
- Linac
Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory, Menlo
Park, California94025, United States
| | - Hans A. Bechtel
- Advanced
Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Berkeley, California94720, United States
| | - Diego A. Huyke
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California94305, United States
| | - Juan G. Santiago
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California94305, United States
| | - Daniel P. DePonte
- Linac
Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory, Menlo
Park, California94025, United States
| | - Jake D. Koralek
- Linac
Coherent Light Source, SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory, Menlo
Park, California94025, United States
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12
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Ferchaud C, Jarosch S, Avni T, Alexander O, Barnard JCT, Larsen EW, Matthews MR, Marangos JP. Interaction of an intense few-cycle infrared laser pulse with an ultrathin transparent liquid sheet. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:34684-34692. [PMID: 36242475 DOI: 10.1364/oe.457470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We experimentally study the interaction between intense infrared few-cycle laser pulses and an ultrathin (∼2 µm) flat liquid sheet of isopropanol running in vacuum. We observe a rapid decline in transmission above a critical peak intensity of 50 TW/cm2 of the initially transparent liquid sheet, and the emission of a plume of material. We find both events are due to the creation of a surface plasma and are similar to processes observed in dielectric solids. After calculating the electron density for different laser peak intensities, we find an electron scattering rate of 0.3 fs-1 in liquid isopropanol to be consistent with our data. We study the dynamics of the plasma plume to find the expansion velocity of the plume front.
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13
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Ayuso D. New opportunities for ultrafast and highly enantio-sensitive imaging of chiral nuclear dynamics enabled by synthetic chiral light. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:10193-10200. [PMID: 35420074 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp05427a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic chiral light [D. Ayuso et al., Nat. Photon., 2019, 13, 866-871] has opened up new opportunities for ultrafast and highly efficient imaging and control of chiral matter. Here we show that the giant enantio-sensitivity enabled by such light could be exploited to probe chiral nuclear rearrangements during chemical reactions in a highly enantio-sensitive manner. Using a state-of-the-art implementation of real-time time-dependent density functional theory, we explore how the nonlinear response of the prototypical chiral molecule H2O2 changes as a function of its dihedral angle, which defines its handedness. The macroscopic intensity emitted from randomly oriented molecules at even harmonic frequencies (of the fundamental) depends strongly on this nuclear coordinate. Because of the ultrafast nature of such nonlinear interactions, the direct mapping between the dissymmetry factor and the nuclear geometry provides a way to probe chiral nuclear dynamics at their natural time scales. Our work paves the way for ultrafast and highly efficient imaging of enantio-sensitive dynamics in more complex chiral systems, including biologically relevant molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Ayuso
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ London, UK. .,Max-Born-Institut, Max-Born-Str. 2A, 12489 Berlin, Germany
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14
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Schewe HC, Credidio B, Ghrist AM, Malerz S, Ozga C, Knie A, Haak H, Meijer G, Winter B, Osterwalder A. Imaging of Chemical Kinetics at the Water-Water Interface in a Free-Flowing Liquid Flat-Jet. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:7790-7795. [PMID: 35471014 PMCID: PMC9073938 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c01232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We present chemical kinetics measurements of the luminol oxidation chemiluminescence (CL) reaction at the interface between two aqueous solutions, using liquid jet technology. Free-flowing liquid microjets are a relatively recent development that have found their way into a growing number of applications in spectroscopy and dynamics. A variant thereof, called flat-jet, is obtained when two cylindrical jets of a liquid are crossed, leading to a chain of planar leaf-shaped structures of the flowing liquid. We here show that in the first leaf of this chain, the fluids do not exhibit turbulent mixing, providing a clean interface between the liquids from the impinging jets. We also show, using the example of the luminol CL reaction, how this setup can be used to obtain kinetics information from friction-less flow and by circumventing the requirement for rapid mixing by intentionally suppressing all turbulent mixing and instead relying on diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Christian Schewe
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 16610 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Bruno Credidio
- Institute for Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aaron M Ghrist
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-0482, United States
| | - Sebastian Malerz
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Ozga
- Institut für Physik und CINSaT, Universität Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Straße 40, 34132 Kassel, Germany
| | - André Knie
- Institut für Physik und CINSaT, Universität Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Straße 40, 34132 Kassel, Germany
| | - Henrik Haak
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerard Meijer
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Winter
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Osterwalder
- Institute for Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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15
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Crissman CJ, Mo M, Chen Z, Yang J, Huyke DA, Glenzer SH, Ledbetter K, F Nunes JP, Ng ML, Wang H, Shen X, Wang X, DePonte DP. Sub-micron thick liquid sheets produced by isotropically etched glass nozzles. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:1365-1373. [PMID: 35234235 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00757b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
We report on the design and testing of glass nozzles used to produce liquid sheets. The sheet nozzles use a single converging channel chemically etched into glass wafers by standard lithographic methods. Operation in ambient air and vacuum was demonstrated. The measured sheet thickness ranges over one order of magnitude with the smallest thickness of 250 nm and the largest of 2.5 μm. Sheet thickness was shown to be independent of liquid flow rate, and dependent on the nozzle outlet area. Sheet surface roughness was dependent on nozzle surface finish and was on the order of 10 nm for polished nozzles. Electron transmission data is presented for various sheet thicknesses near the MeV mean free path and the charge pair distribution function for D2O is determined from electron scattering data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Crissman
- United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA.
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Mianzhen Mo
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Zhijiang Chen
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Jie Yang
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
- Department of Entrepreneurship, Innovation, and Strategy, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Diego A Huyke
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305, USA
| | | | - Kathryn Ledbetter
- Stanford PULSE Institute, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | - J Pedro F Nunes
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA
| | - May Ling Ng
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Hengzi Wang
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Xiaozhe Shen
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Xijie Wang
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
| | - Daniel P DePonte
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA.
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16
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Ayuso D, Ordonez AF, Decleva P, Ivanov M, Smirnova O. Strong chiral response in non-collinear high harmonic generation driven by purely electric-dipole interactions. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:4659-4667. [PMID: 35209442 DOI: 10.1364/oe.444210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
High harmonic generation (HHG) records the ultrafast electronic response of matter to light, encoding key properties of the interrogated quantum system, such as chirality. The first implementation of chiral HHG [Cireasa et al, Nat. Phys.11, 654 (2015)10.1038/nphys3369] relied on the weak electronic response of a medium of randomly oriented chiral molecules to the magnetic component of an elliptically polarized wave, yielding relatively weak chiro-optical signals. Here we apply state-of-the-art semi-analytical modelling to show that elliptically polarized light can drive a strong chiral response in chiral molecules via purely electric-dipole interactions - the magnetic component of the wave does not participate at all. This strong chiro-optical response, which remains hidden in standard HHG experiments, can be mapped into the macroscopic far-field signal using a non-collinear configuration, creating new opportunities for imaging chiral matter and chiral dynamics on ultrafast time scales.
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17
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Chang YP, Yin Z, Balciunas T, Wörner HJ, Wolf JP. Temperature measurements of liquid flat jets in vacuum. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS (MELVILLE, N.Y.) 2022; 9:014901. [PMID: 35224132 PMCID: PMC8853733 DOI: 10.1063/4.0000139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sub-μm thin samples are essential for spectroscopic purposes. The development of flat micro-jets enabled novel spectroscopic and scattering methods for investigating molecular systems in the liquid phase. However, the temperature of these ultra-thin liquid sheets in vacuum has not been systematically investigated. Here, we present a comprehensive temperature characterization using optical Raman spectroscopy of sub-micron flatjets produced by two different methods: colliding of two cylindrical jets and a cylindrical jet compressed by a high pressure gas. Our results reveal the dependence of the cooling rate on the material properties and the source characteristics, i.e., nozzle-orifice size, flow rate, and pressure. We show that materials with higher vapor pressures exhibit faster cooling rates, which is illustrated by comparing the temperature profiles of water and ethanol flatjets. In a sub-μm liquid sheet, the temperature of the water sample reaches around 268 K and the ethanol around 253 K close to the flatjet's terminus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ping Chang
- GAP-Biophotonics, Université de Genève, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Zhong Yin
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Hans Jakob Wörner
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Pierre Wolf
- GAP-Biophotonics, Université de Genève, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
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18
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Svoboda V, Yin Z, Luu TT, Wörner HJ. Polarization measurements of deep- to extreme-ultraviolet high harmonics generated in liquid flat sheets. OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 29:30799-30808. [PMID: 34614799 DOI: 10.1364/oe.433849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Laboratory-based coherent light sources enable a wide range of applications to investigate dynamical processes in matter. High-harmonic generation (HHG) from liquid samples is a recently discovered coherent source of extreme-ultraviolet (XUV) radiation potentially capable of achieving few-femtosecond to attosecond pulse durations. However, the polarization state of this light source has so far remained unknown. In this work, we characterize the degree of polarization of both low- and high-order harmonics generated from liquid samples using linearly polarized 400 nm and 800 nm drivers. We find a remarkably high degree of linear polarization of harmonics ranging all the way from the deep-ultraviolet (160 nm) across the vacuum-ultraviolet into the XUV domain (73 nm). These results establish high-harmonic generation in liquids as a promising alternative to conventional sources of XUV radiation, combining the benefits of high target densities comparable to solids with a continuous sample renewal that avoids the limitations imposed by laser-induced damage.
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19
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Hejazian M, Balaur E, Abbey B. Recent Advances and Future Perspectives on Microfluidic Mix-and-Jet Sample Delivery Devices. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:531. [PMID: 34067131 PMCID: PMC8151207 DOI: 10.3390/mi12050531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The integration of the Gas Dynamic Virtual Nozzle (GDVN) and microfluidic technologies has proven to be a promising sample delivery solution for biomolecular imaging studies and has the potential to be transformative for a range of applications in physics, biology, and chemistry. Here, we review the recent advances in the emerging field of microfluidic mix-and-jet sample delivery devices for the study of biomolecular reaction dynamics. First, we introduce the key parameters and dimensionless numbers involved in their design and characterisation. Then we critically review the techniques used to fabricate these integrated devices and discuss their advantages and disadvantages. We then summarise the most common experimental methods used for the characterisation of both the mixing and jetting components. Finally, we discuss future perspectives on the emerging field of microfluidic mix-and-jet sample delivery devices. In summary, this review aims to introduce this exciting new topic to the wider microfluidics community and to help guide future research in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Brian Abbey
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Department of Chemistry and Physics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia; (M.H.); (E.B.)
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20
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Engel RY, Ekimova M, Miedema PS, Kleine C, Ludwig J, Ochmann M, Grimm-Lebsanft B, Ma R, Teubner M, Dziarzhytski S, Brenner G, Czwalinna MK, Rösner B, Kim TK, David C, Herres-Pawlis S, Rübhausen M, Nibbering ETJ, Huse N, Beye M. Shot noise limited soft x-ray absorption spectroscopy in solution at a SASE-FEL using a transmission grating beam splitter. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS (MELVILLE, N.Y.) 2021; 8:014303. [PMID: 33564694 PMCID: PMC7847311 DOI: 10.1063/4.0000049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy provides element specificity and is a powerful experimental method to probe local unoccupied electronic structures. In the soft x-ray regime, it is especially well suited for the study of 3d-metals and light elements such as nitrogen. Recent developments in vacuum-compatible liquid flat jets have facilitated soft x-ray transmission spectroscopy on molecules in solution, providing information on valence charge distributions of heteroatoms and metal centers. Here, we demonstrate XANES spectroscopy of molecules in solution at the nitrogen K-edge, performed at FLASH, the Free-Electron Laser (FEL) in Hamburg. A split-beam referencing scheme optimally characterizes the strong shot-to-shot fluctuations intrinsic to the process of self-amplified spontaneous emission on which most FELs are based. Due to this normalization, a sensitivity of 1% relative transmission change is achieved, limited by fundamental photon shot noise. The effective FEL bandwidth is increased by streaking the electron energy over the FEL pulse train to measure a wider spectral window without changing FEL parameters. We propose modifications to the experimental setup with the potential of improving the instrument sensitivity by two orders of magnitude, thereby exploiting the high peak fluence of FELs to enable unprecedented sensitivity for femtosecond XANES spectroscopy on liquids in the soft x-ray spectral region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Y. Engel
- Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria Ekimova
- Max Born Institute for Nonlinear Optics and Short Pulse Spectroscopy, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Carlo Kleine
- Max Born Institute for Nonlinear Optics and Short Pulse Spectroscopy, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Ludwig
- Max Born Institute for Nonlinear Optics and Short Pulse Spectroscopy, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Miguel Ochmann
- Institut for Nanostructure and Solid-State Physics, CFEL, University of Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Benjamin Grimm-Lebsanft
- Institut for Nanostructure and Solid-State Physics, CFEL, University of Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Rory Ma
- Institut for Nanostructure and Solid-State Physics, CFEL, University of Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Günter Brenner
- Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Tae Kyu Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Yonsei University, 03722 Seoul, South Korea
| | | | - Sonja Herres-Pawlis
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael Rübhausen
- Institut for Nanostructure and Solid-State Physics, CFEL, University of Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Erik T. J. Nibbering
- Max Born Institute for Nonlinear Optics and Short Pulse Spectroscopy, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Nils Huse
- Institut for Nanostructure and Solid-State Physics, CFEL, University of Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Martin Beye
- Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
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21
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Menzi S, Knopp G, Al Haddad A, Augustin S, Borca C, Gashi D, Huthwelker T, James D, Jin J, Pamfilidis G, Schnorr K, Sun Z, Wetter R, Zhang Q, Cirelli C. Generation and simple characterization of flat, liquid jets. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2020; 91:105109. [PMID: 33138597 DOI: 10.1063/5.0007228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We present an approach to determine the absolute thickness profile of flat liquid jets, which takes advantage of the information of thin film interference combined with light absorption, both captured in a single microscopic image. The feasibility of the proposed method is demonstrated on our compact experimental setup used to generate micrometer thin, free-flowing liquid jet sheets upon collision of two identical laminar cylindrical jets. Stable operation was achieved over several hours of the flat jet in vacuum (10-4 mbar), making the system ideally suitable for soft x-ray photon spectroscopy of liquid solutions. We characterize the flat jet size and thickness generated with two solvents, water and ethanol, employing different flow rates and nozzles of variable sizes. Our results show that a gradient of thickness ranging from a minimal thickness of 2 µm to over 10 µm can be found within the jet surface area. This enables the tunability of the sample thickness in situ, allowing the optimization of the transmitted photon flux for the chosen photon energy and sample. We demonstrate the feasibility of x-ray absorption spectroscopy experiments in transmission mode by measuring at the oxygen K-edge of ethanol. Our characterization method and the description of the experimental setup and its reported performance are expected to expand the range of applications and facilitate the use of flat liquid jets for spectroscopy experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Menzi
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Gregor Knopp
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Andre Al Haddad
- Laboratory for Advanced Photonics, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Sven Augustin
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Camelia Borca
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Dardan Gashi
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Huthwelker
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Daniel James
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Biology and Chemistry Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Jiaye Jin
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Georgios Pamfilidis
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Kirsten Schnorr
- Laboratory for Advanced Photonics, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Zhibin Sun
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Reto Wetter
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Claudio Cirelli
- Laboratory for Synchrotron Radiation and Femtochemistry, Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
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22
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Endo T, Tsubouchi M, Itakura R. Plasma-mirror frequency-resolved optical gating using a liquid-sheet jet in ultraviolet region. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:3234-3237. [PMID: 31259929 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.003234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate plasma-mirror frequency-resolved optical gating (PM-FROG) using a liquid-sheet jet of water and characterize a waveform of a high-repetition laser pulse (1 kHz) in the ultraviolet (UV) region. The measured PM-FROG trace is reconstructed by the least-squares generalized projections algorithm. The retrieved UV spectral phase is consistent with that by self-diffraction FROG. The complex reflection coefficient of a plasma mirror is discussed in terms of the free electron density dependence. The PM-FROG technique is applicable to not only the pulse characterization, but also the investigation of ionization dynamics of a liquid.
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23
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Johnson AS, Avni T, Larsen EW, Austin DR, Marangos JP. Attosecond soft X-ray high harmonic generation. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2019; 377:20170468. [PMID: 30929634 PMCID: PMC6452054 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2017.0468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
High harmonic generation (HHG) of an intense laser pulse is a highly nonlinear optical phenomenon that provides the only proven source of tabletop attosecond pulses, and it is the key technology in attosecond science. Recent developments in high-intensity infrared lasers have extended HHG beyond its traditional domain of the XUV spectral range (10-150 eV) into the soft X-ray regime (150 eV to 3 keV), allowing the compactness, stability and sub-femtosecond duration of HHG to be combined with the atomic site specificity and electronic/structural sensitivity of X-ray spectroscopy. HHG in the soft X-ray spectral region has significant differences from HHG in the XUV, which necessitate new approaches to generating and characterizing attosecond pulses. Here, we examine the challenges and opportunities of soft X-ray HHG, and we use simulations to examine the optimal generating conditions for the development of high-flux, attosecond-duration pulses in the soft X-ray spectral range. This article is part of the theme issue 'Measurement of ultrafast electronic and structural dynamics with X-rays'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan S. Johnson
- ICFO - The Institute of Photonic Sciences, Castelldefels (Barcelona) 08860, Spain
- e-mail:
| | - Timur Avni
- Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Esben W. Larsen
- Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Dane R. Austin
- Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Jon P. Marangos
- Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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24
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Affiliation(s)
- Majed Chergui
- Laboratoire de Spectroscopie Ultrarapide (LSU) and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, ISIC, FSB, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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25
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Kleine C, Ekimova M, Goldsztejn G, Raabe S, Strüber C, Ludwig J, Yarlagadda S, Eisebitt S, Vrakking MJJ, Elsaesser T, Nibbering ETJ, Rouzée A. Soft X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy of Aqueous Solutions Using a Table-Top Femtosecond Soft X-ray Source. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:52-58. [PMID: 30547598 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b03420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate the feasibility of soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy in the water window using a table-top laser-based approach with organic molecules and inorganic salts in aqueous solution. A high-order harmonic source delivers femtosecond pulses of short wavelength radiation in the photon energy range from 220 to 450 eV. We report static soft X-ray absorption measurements in transmission on the solvated compounds O=C(NH2)2, CaCl2, and NaNO3 using flatjet technology. We monitor the absorption of the molecular samples between the carbon (∼280 eV) and nitrogen (∼400 eV) K-edges and compare our results with previous measurements performed at the BESSYII facility. We discuss the roles of pulse stability and photon flux in the outcome of our experiments. Our work paves the way toward table-top femtosecond, solution-phase soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy in the water window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Kleine
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Maria Ekimova
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Gildas Goldsztejn
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Sebastian Raabe
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Christian Strüber
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Jan Ludwig
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Suresh Yarlagadda
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Stefan Eisebitt
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Marc J J Vrakking
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Thomas Elsaesser
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Erik T J Nibbering
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Arnaud Rouzée
- Max-Born-Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie , Max-Born-Strasse 2a , 12489 Berlin , Germany
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26
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Luu TT, Yin Z, Jain A, Gaumnitz T, Pertot Y, Ma J, Wörner HJ. Extreme-ultraviolet high-harmonic generation in liquids. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3723. [PMID: 30213950 PMCID: PMC6137105 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06040-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
High–harmonic generation (HHG) in gases has been the main enabling technology of attosecond science since its discovery. Recently, HHG from solids has been demonstrated, opening a lively area of research. In contrast, harmonic generation from liquids has so far remained restricted to low harmonics in the visible regime. Here, we report the observation and detailed characterization of extreme ultraviolet HHG from liquid water and several alcohols extending beyond 20 eV. This advance was enabled by the implementation of the recent liquid flat–microjet technology, which we show to facilitate the spatial separation of HHG from the bulk liquid and the surrounding gas phase. We observe striking differences between the HHG spectra of water and several alcohols. A comparison with a strongly–driven few–band model establishes the sensitivity of HHG to the electronic structure of liquids. Our results suggest liquid–phase high–harmonic spectroscopy as a new method for studying the electronic structure and ultrafast scattering processes in liquids. While high–harmonic generation from gases, and more recently also from solids, has been extensively studied, there is little data on HHG from liquids. Here, Luu et al. experimentally demonstrate and study HHG up to 27th order from the bulk of liquid water and different alcohols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tran Trung Luu
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Zhong Yin
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Arohi Jain
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Gaumnitz
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Yoann Pertot
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jun Ma
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Hans Jakob Wörner
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland.
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27
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Koralek JD, Kim JB, Brůža P, Curry CB, Chen Z, Bechtel HA, Cordones AA, Sperling P, Toleikis S, Kern JF, Moeller SP, Glenzer SH, DePonte DP. Generation and characterization of ultrathin free-flowing liquid sheets. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1353. [PMID: 29636445 PMCID: PMC5893585 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03696-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The physics and chemistry of liquid solutions play a central role in science, and our understanding of life on Earth. Unfortunately, key tools for interrogating aqueous systems, such as infrared and soft X-ray spectroscopy, cannot readily be applied because of strong absorption in water. Here we use gas-dynamic forces to generate free-flowing, sub-micron, liquid sheets which are two orders of magnitude thinner than anything previously reported. Optical, infrared, and X-ray spectroscopies are used to characterize the sheets, which are found to be tunable in thickness from over 1 μm down to less than 20 nm, which corresponds to fewer than 100 water molecules thick. At this thickness, aqueous sheets can readily transmit photons across the spectrum, leading to potentially transformative applications in infrared, X-ray, electron spectroscopies and beyond. The ultrathin sheets are stable for days in vacuum, and we demonstrate their use at free-electron laser and synchrotron light sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake D Koralek
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - Jongjin B Kim
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Petr Brůža
- ELI Beamlines, Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Na Slovance 2, Prague, 18221, Czech Republic.,Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, 14 Engineering Dr, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Chandra B Curry
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zhijiang Chen
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Hans A Bechtel
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Amy A Cordones
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Philipp Sperling
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA.,European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser Facility GmbH, Schenefeld, 22869, Germany
| | - Sven Toleikis
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, DESY, Notkestraße 85, Hamburg, D-22607, Germany
| | - Jan F Kern
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Stefan P Moeller
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA
| | | | - Daniel P DePonte
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, 94720, USA
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