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Yang C, Zhang Z, Yuan Y, Zhang D, Jin H, Li Y, Du S, Li X, Fang B, Wei F, Yan G. Natural variation in photosynthetic electron transport of wheat flag leaves in response to dark-induced senescence. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2024; 259:113018. [PMID: 39182402 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2024.113018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 08/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024]
Abstract
Early leaf senescence affects photosynthetic efficiency and limits growth during the late production stage of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). Natural variation in photosystem response to senescence represents a valuable resource for improving the aging traits of flag leaves. To explore the natural variation of different phases of photosynthetic electron transport in modern wheat cultivars during senescence, we exposed the flag leaves of 32 wheat cultivars to dark conditions to induce senescence process, and simultaneously measured prompt fluorescence and modulated 820 nm reflection. The results showed that the chlorophyll content, activity of PSII donor side, PSI and electron transfer between PSII and PSI were all decreased during dark-induced senescence, but they showed different sensitivity to dark-induced senescence. Furthermore, natural variation in photosynthetic parameters among the 32 wheat cultivars were also observed and showed by variation coefficient of the different parameters. We observed that PSII and PSI activity showed less sensitivity to dark-induced senescence than electron transfer between them, while PSII and PSI activity exhibit greater natural variation than electron transport between PSII and PSI. It suggests that Cytb6f might degrade faster and have less variation than PSII and PSI during dark-induced senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yang
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Zishan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an 271018, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Deqi Zhang
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Haiyang Jin
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Ying Li
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Simeng Du
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Xiangdong Li
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Baoting Fang
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Fang Wei
- School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
| | - Ge Yan
- Wheat Research Institute, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Postgraduate T&R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
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Li X, Meng X, Yang X, Duan D. Characterization of Chlorophyll Fluorescence and Antioxidant Defense Parameters of Two Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis Strains under Different Temperatures. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1670. [PMID: 37111893 PMCID: PMC10146300 DOI: 10.3390/plants12081670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
In this study, two Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis strains-the wild type and a green-pigmented mutant-were cultured at three temperatures (8, 20, and 30 °C) for 7 days to explore their temperature tolerance using photosynthetic performance and antioxidant defense parameters. When the two strains of G. lemaneiformis were separately cultured at 30 °C, the fast chlorophyll fluorescence intensity of the wild type decreased, whereas the green mutant showed no significant change. The decrease in the performance index on absorption basis value under heat stress was lower in the green mutant than in the wild type. In addition, the green mutant had stronger antioxidant activity at 30 °C. Furthermore, a greater decrease in the values of maximum photochemical quantum yield and performance index on an absorption basis in the green mutant indicated that it had a greater degree of inhibition of photosynthetic performance under low temperatures. However, the green mutant produced less reactive oxygen species under low temperatures, suggesting that the antioxidant potential of the green mutant might be higher. In conclusion, the green mutant exhibited heat tolerance and could recover from low-temperature damage; therefore, it has the potential for large-scale cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xue Meng
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaoqi Yang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Delin Duan
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
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Qi X, Wan C, Zhang X, Sun W, Liu R, Wang Z, Wang Z, Ling F. Effects of histone methylation modification on low temperature seed germination and growth of maize. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5196. [PMID: 36997660 PMCID: PMC10063631 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32451-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Low temperature is a limiting factor of seed germination and plant growth. Although there is a lot information on the response of maize to low temperatures, there is still poorly description of how histone methylation affects maize germination and growth development at low temperatures. In this study, the germination rate and physiological indexes of wild-type maize inbred lines B73 (WT), SDG102 silencing lines (AS), SDG102 overexpressed lines (OE) at germination stage and seedling stage were measured under low temperature stress (4 ℃), and transcriptome sequencing was applied to analyze the differences of gene expression in panicle leaves among different materials. The results showed that the germination rate of WT and OE maize seeds at 4 ℃ was significantly lower than 25 ℃. The content of MDA, SOD and POD of 4 ℃ seeding leaves higher than contrast. Transcriptome sequencing results showed that there were 409 different expression genes (DEGs) between WT and AS, and the DEGs were mainly up-regulated expression in starch and sucrose metabolism and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. There were 887 DEGs between WT and OE, which were mainly up-regulated in the pathways of plant hormone signal transduction, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism. This result could provide a theoretical basis for analyzing the growth and development of maize from the perspective of histone methylation modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Qi
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Chang Wan
- Institute of Grassland and Ecology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xing Zhang
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Weifeng Sun
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Rui Liu
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Zhennan Wang
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Zhenhui Wang
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
| | - Fenglou Ling
- Faculty of Agronomy, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
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Guo N, Tang S, Wang J, Hu S, Tang S, Wei X, Shao G, Jiao G, Sheng Z, Hu P. Transcriptome and Proteome Analysis Revealed That Hormone and Reactive Oxygen Species Synergetically Regulate Dormancy of Introgression Line in Rice ( Oryza sativa L.). Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076088. [PMID: 37047061 PMCID: PMC10094489 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Dormancy is a complex agronomy phenotype controlled by multiple signaling and a key trait repressing pre-harvest sprouting (PHS). However, the signaling network of dormancy remains unclear. In this study, we used Zhonghua11 (ZH11) with a weak dormancy, and Introgression line (IL) with a strong dormancy to study the mechanism of hormones and reactive oxygen species (ROS) crosstalk regulating rice dormancy. The germination experiment showed that the germination rate of ZH11 was 76.86%, while that of IL was only 1.25%. Transcriptome analysis showed that there were 1658 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between IL and ZH11, of which 577 were up-regulated and 1081 were down-regulated. Additionally, DEGs were mainly enriched in oxidoreductase activity, cell periphery, and plant hormone signal transduction pathways. Tandem mass tags (TMT) quantitative proteomics analysis showed 275 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) between IL and ZH11, of which 176 proteins were up-regulated, 99 were down-regulated, and the DEPs were mainly enriched in the metabolic process and oxidation-reduction process. The comprehensive transcriptome and proteome analysis showed that their correlation was very low, and only 56 genes were co-expressed. Hormone content detection showed that IL had significantly lower abscisic acid (ABA) contents than the ZH11 while having significantly higher jasmonic acid (JA) contents than the ZH11. ROS content measurement showed that the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content of IL was significantly lower than the ZH11, while the production rate of superoxide anion (O2.-) was significantly higher than the ZH11. These results indicate that hormones and ROS crosstalk to regulate rice dormancy. In particular, this study has deepened our mechanism of ROS and JA crosstalk regulating rice dormancy and is conducive to our precise inhibition of PHS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naihui Guo
- Rice Research Institute, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Shengjia Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Jiayu Wang
- Rice Research Institute, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Shikai Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Shaoqing Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Xiangjin Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Gaoneng Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Guiai Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Zhonghua Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Peisong Hu
- Rice Research Institute, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture, China National Rice improvement Centre, China National Rice Research Institute, Hangzhou 310006, China
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Wang Q, Yang S, Fan M, Feng P, Zhu L, Chen H, Wang J. A natural variation in the promoter of GRA117 affects carbon assimilation in rice. PLANTA 2023; 257:77. [PMID: 36894728 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-023-04109-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
GRA117 is crucial in the process of carbon assimilation in rice as it regulates the development of chloroplasts, which in turn facilitates the Calvin-Benson cycle. Carbon assimilation is a critical process for plant growth, and despite numerous relevant studies, there are still unknown constraints. In this study, we isolated a rice mutant, gra117, which exhibited seedling albinism, delayed chloroplast development, decreased chlorophyll content, reduced yield, and seedling stress susceptibility, as compared to WT. Our further investigations revealed that gra117 had a significantly lower net photosynthetic carbon assimilation rate, as well as reduced levels of Rubisco enzyme activity, RUBP, PGA, carbohydrate, protein content, and dry matter accumulation. These findings provide evidence for decreased carbon assimilation in gra117. By mapping cloning, we discovered a 665 bp insertion in the GRA117 promoter region that decreases GRA117 transcriptional activity and causes the gra117 phenotype. GRA117 encodes PfkB-type fructokinase-like 2, which is subcellularly localized in chloroplasts and is widely expressed in various rice tissues, particularly at high levels in leaf tissues. GRA117 transcription is regulated by the core region 1029 bp before the start codon. Our quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot assays showed that GRA117 promotes the expression and translation of photosynthetic genes. RNA-Seq analysis revealed that GRA117 plays a significant role in photosynthetic carbon fixation, carbon metabolism, and chloroplast ribosome-related pathways. Our study supports that GRA117 promotes the Calvin-Benson cycle by regulating chloroplast development, ultimately leading to enhanced carbon assimilation in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Shenglong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingqian Fan
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Pulin Feng
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongwei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiayu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Genetic Breeding in Northeast China (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Areas), Rice Research Institute of Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, People's Republic of China.
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Wu HY, Liu LA, Shi L, Zhang WF, Jiang CD. Photosynthetic acclimation during low-light-induced leaf senescence in post-anthesis maize plants. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2021; 150:313-326. [PMID: 34086146 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-021-00851-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Low light conditions not only induce leaf senescence, but also photosynthetic acclimation. This study aimed to determine whether plants exhibit photosynthetic acclimation during low-light-induced leaf senescence. The influences of shading on leaf senescence and photosynthetic acclimation were explored in post-anthesis maize plants. The results showed that whole shading (WS) of maize plants accelerated leaf senescence, whereas partial shading (PS) slowed leaf senescence. WS led to larger decreases in the photosynthetic rate (Pn) and stomatal conductance (Gs) compared to those of the PS treatment. Interestingly, chlorophyll a fluorescence (ChlF) demonstrated that the absorption flux (ABS/CSo) and trapped energy flux (TRo/CSo) per cross section in leaves remained relatively stable under WS, whereas significant decreases in the active PSII reaction centers (RC/CSo) resulted in considerable increases in absorption (ABS/RC) and trapped energy flux (TRo/RC) per reaction center. ABS/CSo, TRo/CSo, ABS/RC, and TRo/RC increased markedly under PS, whereas there were slight decreases in RC/CSo and electron transport activity. These results suggest that the PS treatment resulted in obvious improvements in the absorption and capture of light energy in shaded leaves. Further analysis demonstrated that both the WS and PS treatments resulted in a greater decrease in the activity of Rubisco compared to that of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC). Moreover, PEPC activity in PS was maintained at a high level. Consequently, the current study proposed that the improvement of the absorption and capture of light energy and the maintenance of PEPC activity of mesophyll cells were due to photosynthetic acclimation of low-light-induced leaf senescence in maize plants. In addition, the rate of senescence of vascular bundle cells in maize leaves exceeded that of mesophyll cells under low light, showing obvious tissue specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Yu Wu
- Key Laboratory of Oasis Eco-Agriculture, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps/College of Agronomy, Shihezi University, Shihezi, 832003, China
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Li-An Liu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Wang-Feng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Oasis Eco-Agriculture, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps/College of Agronomy, Shihezi University, Shihezi, 832003, China.
| | - Chuang-Dao Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China.
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Zhu L, Wen W, Thorpe MR, Hocart CH, Song X. Combining Heat Stress with Pre-Existing Drought Exacerbated the Effects on Chlorophyll Fluorescence Rise Kinetics in Four Contrasting Plant Species. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910682. [PMID: 34639023 PMCID: PMC8508795 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although drought and high temperature are two main factors affecting crop productivity and forest vegetation dynamics in many areas worldwide, little work has been done to describe the effects of heat combined with pre-existing drought on photochemical function in diverse plant species. This study investigated the biophysical status of photosystem II (PSII) and its dynamic responses under 2-day heat stress during a 2-week drought by measuring the polyphasic chlorophyll fluorescence rise (OJIP) kinetics. This study examined four contrasting species: a C3 crop/grass (wheat), a C4 crop/grass (sorghum), a temperate tree species (Fraxinus chinensis) and a tropical tree species (Radermachera sinica). Principal component analysis showed that the combination of heat and drought deviated from the effect of heat or drought alone. For all four species, a linear mixed-effects model analysis of variance of the OJIP parameters showed that the deviation arose from decreased quantum yield and increased heat dissipation of PSII. The results confirmed, in four contrasting plant species, that heat stress, when combined with pre-existing drought, exacerbated the effects on PSII photochemistry. These findings provide direction to future research and applications of chlorophyll fluorescence rise OJIP kinetics in agriculture and forestry, for facing increasingly more severe intensity and duration of both heat and drought events under climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingling Zhu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Ecological Environment, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (L.Z.); (W.W.)
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Wei Wen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Ecological Environment, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (L.Z.); (W.W.)
| | - Michael R. Thorpe
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (M.R.T.); (C.H.H.)
| | - Charles H. Hocart
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; (M.R.T.); (C.H.H.)
- Isotopomics in Chemical Biology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710021, China
| | - Xin Song
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Ecological Environment, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (L.Z.); (W.W.)
- Correspondence:
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