DNA barcodes reveal cryptic host-specificity within the presumed polyphagous members of a genus of parasitoid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae)

Novel insights into symbiont population structure: Globe-trotting avian feather mites contradict the specialist-generalist variation hypothesis

Researchers often examine symbiont host specificity as a species-level pattern, but it can also be key to understanding processes occurring at the population level, which are not as well understood. The specialist-generalist variation hypothesis (SGVH) attempts to explain how host specificity influences population-level processes, stating that single-host symbionts (specialists) exhibit stronger population genetic structure than multi-host symbionts (generalists) because of fewer opportunities for dispersal and more restricted gene flow between populations. However, this hypothesis has not been tested in systems with highly mobile hosts, in which population connectivity may vary temporally and spatially. To address this gap, we tested the SGVH on proctophyllodid feather mites found on migratory warblers (family Parulidae) with contrasting host specificities, Amerodectes protonotaria (a host specialist of Protonotaria citrea) and A. ischyros (a host generalist of 17 parulid species). We used a pooled-sequencing approach and a novel workflow to analyse genetic variants obtained from whole genome data. Both mite species exhibited fairly weak population structure overall, and contrary to predictions of the SGVH, the generalist was more strongly structured than the specialist. These results may suggest that specialists disperse more freely among conspecifics, whereas generalists sort according to geography. Furthermore, our results may reflect an unexpected period for mite transmission - during the nonbreeding season of migratory hosts - as mite population structure more closely reflects the distributions of hosts during the nonbreeding season. Our findings alter our current understanding of feather mite biology and highlight the potential for studies to explore factors driving symbiont diversification at multiple evolutionary scales.

New species based on the biological species concept within the complex of Lariophagus distinguendus (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae), a parasitoid of household pests

The pteromalid parasitoid Lariophagus distinguendus (Foerster) belongs to the Hymenoptera, a megadiverse insect order with high cryptic diversity. It attacks stored product pest beetles in human storage facilities. Recently, it has been shown to consist of two separate species. To further study its cryptic diversity, strains were collected to compare their relatedness using barcoding and nuclear genes. Nuclear genes identified two clusters which agree with the known two species, whereas the barcode fragment determined an additional third Clade. Total reproductive isolation (RI) according to the biological species concept (BSC) was investigated in crossing experiments within and between clusters using representative strains. Sexual isolation exists between all studied pairs, increasing from slight to strong with genetic distance. Postzygotic barriers mostly affected hybrid males, pointing to Haldane's rule. Hybrid females were only affected by unidirectional Spiroplasma-induced cytoplasmic incompatibility and behavioural sterility, each in one specific strain combination. RI was virtually absent between strains separated by up to 2.8% COI difference, but strong or complete in three pairs from one Clade each, separated by at least 7.2%. Apparently, each of these clusters represents one separate species according to the BSC, highlighting cryptic diversity in direct vicinity to humans. In addition, these results challenge the recent 'turbo-taxonomy' practice of using 2% COI differences to delimitate species, especially within parasitic Hymenoptera. The gradual increase in number and strength of reproductive barriers between strains with increasing genetic distance also sheds light on the emergence of barriers during the speciation process in L. distinguendus.

Genetic Diversity Analysis and Breeding of Geese Based on the Mitochondrial ND6 Gene

To explore the differences in body-weight traits of five goose breeds and analyze their genetic diversity and historical dynamics, we collected body-weight data statistics and used Sanger sequencing to determine the mitochondrial DNA of 100 samples of five typical goose breeds in China and abroad. The results indicated that Lion-Head, Hortobagy, and Yangzhou geese have great breeding potential for body weight. Thirteen polymorphic sites were detected in the corrected 505 bp sequence of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) ND6 gene, accounting for approximately 2.57% of the total number of sites. The guanine-cytosine (GC) content (51.7%) of the whole sequence was higher than the adenine-thymine (AT) content (48.3%), showing a certain GC base preference. There were 11 haplotypes among the five breeds, including one shared haplotype. We analyzed the differences in the distribution of base mismatches among the five breeds and conducted Tajima's D and Fu's Fs neutral tests on the historical dynamics of the populations. The distribution of the mismatch difference presented an unsmooth single peak and the Tajima's D value of the neutral test was negative (D < 0) and reached a significant level, which proves that the population of the three species had expanded; the Lion-Head goose population tends to be stable. The genetic diversity of Lion-Head, Zhedong White, Yangzhou, and Taihu geese was equal to the average diversity of Chinese goose breeds. The Hortobagy goose is a foreign breed with differences in mating line breeding and hybrid advantage utilization.

Revision of Belvosia Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera, Tachinidae) and 33 new species from Area de Conservación Guanacaste in northwestern Costa Rica with a key to known North and Mesoamerican species

Background

This revision is part of a continuing series of taxonomic work aimed at the description of new taxa and the redescription of known taxa of the Tachinidae of Area de Conservación Guanacaste in northwestern Costa Rica. Here we describe 33 new species in the genus Belvosia Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 (Diptera: Tachinidae). All species described here were reared from this ongoing inventory of wild-caught caterpillars spanning a variety of families (Lepidoptera: Erebidae, Eupterotidae, Noctuidae, Notodontidae, Saturniidae, and Sphingidae). We provide a morphological description of each species with limited information on life history, molecular data, and photographic documentation. In addition to the new species, the authors provide a redescription of the genus Belvosia, as well as provide a key to the identification of the species present in the Meso- and North-American fauna.

New information

The following 33 new species of Belvosia Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, all authored by Fleming & Woodley, are described: Belvosiaadrianguadamuzi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaanacarballoae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaangelhernandezi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiabrigittevilchezae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaalixtomoragai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiacarolinacanoae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaciriloumanai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiadiniamartinezae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaduniagarciae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaduvalierbricenoi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaeldaarayae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaeliethcantillanoae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiafreddyquesadai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiagloriasihezarae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaguillermopereirai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaharryramirezi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiahazelcambroneroae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiajorgehernandezi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiajosecortezi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiajoseperezi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiakeinoraragoni Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosialuciariosae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiamanuelpereirai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiamanuelriosi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaminorcarmonai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaosvaldoespinozai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiapabloumanai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiapetronariosae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaricardocaleroi Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiarobertoespinozai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiarostermoragai Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiaruthfrancoae Fleming & Woodley sp. n., Belvosiasergioriosi Fleming & Woodley sp. n.Belvosiacanalis Aldrich, 1928 is reared and recorded from the inventory; new information relative to host is provided and the species is rediscribed.The following are proposed by Fleming & Woodley as new synonyms of Belvosia Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830: Brachybelvosia Townsend, 1927 syn. n., Belvosiomimops Townsend, 1935 syn. n.The following three new combinations are proposed as a result of the new synonymies: Belvosiabrasilensis (Townsend, 1927), comb. n.; and Belvosiabarbiellinii (Townsend, 1935), comb. n.The authors also propose the following new synonymies: Belvosiabrasilensis (Townsend, 1927) = Belvosiaaurulenta (Bigot, 1888), syn. n.; Belvosiapollinosa Rowe, 1933 = Belvosiaborealis Aldrich, 1928 syn. n.; Belvosiaweyenberghiana (Wulp, 1883) = Belvosiafuliginosa (Walker, 1853) syn. n.; Belvosiabrasiliensis Townsend, 1927 = Belvosiafuliginosa (Walker, 1853) syn. n.; Belvosialuteola Coquillett, 1900 = Belvosiaochriventris (Wulp, 1890) syn. n.; Belvosiasocia (Walker, 1853) = Belvosiaproxima (Walker, 1853) syn. n.; Belvosiachrysopyga (Bigot, 1887) = Belvosiaunifasciata (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) syn. n.; Belvosiachrysopygata (Bigot, 1888) = Belvosiaunifasciata (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) syn. n.

CO1 barcodes resolve an asymmetric biphyletic clade for Diabrotica undecimpunctata subspecies and provide nucleotide variants for differentiation from related lineages using real-time PCR

Diabrotica undecimpunctata is a multivoltine polyphagous beetle species that has long been documented as a significant agricultural pest throughout its native range in North America. This beetle can vector bacterial and viral plant pathogens that result in major losses to crops such as cucumber and soybean. Many countries outside the Americas treat D. undecimpunctata as a species of quarantine importance, while in the USA only the subspecies D. u. duodecimnotata is subject to quarantine, to prevent introduction from Mexico. Identification of D. undecimpunctata on the basis of morphology alone can be complicated given the use of conflicting characters in the description of some subspecific taxa. To better understand relationships among D. undecimpunctata subspecies and other related species, we sequenced mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1) and nuclear internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) DNA from individuals in different subspecific taxa and across different parts of the species range using museum samples and interceptions. When our data were combined with publicly available Diabrotica data, no pattern of divergence consistent with the currently recognized subspecific designations was found. In addition, we compared phylogenetic patterns in CO1 data from the congener D. virgifera to demonstrate the utility of mitochondrial data in resolving subspecies. From the CO1 data, a diagnostic real-time PCR assay was developed that could successfully identify all haplotypes within the large D. undecimpunctata clade for use in surveys and identification at ports of entry. These findings underscore the need to resolve molecular and morphological datasets into cogent, lineage-based groupings. Such efforts will provide an evolutionary context for the study of agriculturally important attributes of Diabrotica such as host preferences, xenobiotic metabolism, and natural and anthropogenic patterns of dispersal.

DNA barcoding of Chinese snakes reveals hidden diversity and conservation needs

DNA barcoding has greatly facilitated studies of taxonomy, biodiversity, biological conservation, and ecology. Here, we establish a reliable DNA barcoding library for Chinese snakes, unveiling hidden diversity with implications for taxonomy, and provide a standardized tool for conservation management. Our comprehensive study includes 1638 cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences from Chinese snakes that correspond to 17 families, 65 genera, 228 named species (80.6% of named species) and 36 candidate species. A barcode gap analysis reveals gaps, where all nearest neighbour distances exceed maximum intraspecific distances, in 217 named species and all candidate species. Three species-delimitation methods (ABGD, sGMYC, and sPTP) recover 320 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), of which 192 OTUs correspond to named and candidate species. Twenty-eight other named species share OTUs, such as Azemiops feae and A. kharini, Gloydius halys, G. shedaoensis, and G. intermedius, and Bungarus multicinctus and B. candidus, representing inconsistencies most probably caused by imperfect taxonomy, recent and rapid speciation, weak taxonomic signal, introgressive hybridization, and/or inadequate phylogenetic signal. In contrast, 43 species and candidate species assign to two or more OTUs due to having large intraspecific distances. If most OTUs detected in this study reflect valid species, including the 36 candidate species, then 30% more species would exist than are currently recognized. Several OTU divergences associate with known biogeographic barriers, such as the Taiwan Strait. In addition to facilitating future studies, this reliable and relatively comprehensive reference database will play an important role in the future monitoring, conservation, and management of Chinese snakes.

Species richness of bat flies and their associations with host bats in a subtropical East Asian region

BACKGROUND

Understanding the interactions between bat flies and host bats offer us fundamental insights into the coevolutionary and ecological processes in host-parasite relationships. Here, we investigated the identities, host specificity, and patterns of host association of bat flies in a subtropical region in East Asia, which is an understudied region for bat fly research.

METHODS

We used both morphological characteristics and DNA barcoding to identify the bat fly species found on 11 cavernicolous bat species from five bat families inhabiting Hong Kong. We first determined the phylogenetic relationships among bat fly species. Then, we elucidated the patterns of bat-bat fly associations and calculated the host specificity of each bat fly species. Furthermore, we assembled the mitogenomes of three bat fly species from two families (Nycteribiidae and Streblidae) to contribute to the limited bat fly genetic resources available.

RESULTS

We examined 641 individuals of bat flies and found 20 species, of which many appeared to be new to science. Species of Nycteribiidae included five Nycteribia spp., three Penicillidia spp., two Phthiridium spp., one Basilia sp., and one species from a hitherto unknown genus, whereas Streblidae included Brachytarsina amboinensis, three Raymondia spp., and four additional Brachytarsina spp. Our bat-bat fly association network shows that certain closely related bat flies within Nycteribiidae and Streblidae only parasitized host bat species that are phylogenetically more closely related. For example, congenerics of Raymondia only parasitized hosts in Rhinolophus and Hipposideros, which are in two closely related families in Rhinolophoidea, but not other distantly related co-roosting species. A wide spectrum of host specificity of these bat fly species was also revealed, with some bat fly species being strictly monoxenous, e.g. nycteribiid Nycteribia sp. A, Phthiridium sp. A, and streblid Raymondia sp. A, while streblid B. amboinensis is polyxenous.

CONCLUSIONS

The bat fly diversity and specificity uncovered in this study have shed light on the complex bat-bat fly ecology in the region, but more bat-parasite association studies are still needed in East Asian regions like China as a huge number of unknown species likely exists. We highly recommend the use of DNA barcoding to support morphological identification to reveal accurate host-ectoparasite relationships for future studies.

Peters R. Another crack in the Dark Taxa wall: a custom DNA barcoding protocol for the species-rich and common Eurytomidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea)

DNA barcodes are a great tool for accelerated species identification and for complementing species delimitation. Furthermore, DNA barcode reference libraries are the decisive backbone feature for any metabarcoding study in biodiversity monitoring, conservation or ecology. However, in some taxa, DNA barcodes cannot be generated with published primers at a satisfying success rate and these groups will consequently be largely missing from any barcoding-based species list. Here, we provide a custom DNA barcoding forward primer for the Eurytomidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea), elevating the success rate of high-quality DNA barcodes from 33% to 88%. Eurytomidae is a severely understudied, taxonomically challenging, species-rich group of primarily parasitoid wasps. High species numbers, diverse ecological roles and widespread and common presence identify Eurytomidae as one of many crucial families in terrestrial ecosystems. It is now possible to include Eurytomidae when studying and monitoring the terrestrial fauna, highlighting that barcoding-based approaches will need to routinely use different primers to avoid biases in their data and inferences. The new DNA barcoding protocol is also a prerequisite for our integrative taxonomy study of the group, aiming at delimiting and characterising Central European species and filling the GBOL (German Barcode Of Life) DNA barcode reference library with species-named and voucher-linked sequences.

Remarkably low host specificity in the bat fly Penicillidia fulvida (Diptera: Nycteribiidae) as assessed by mitochondrial COI and nuclear 28S sequence data

BACKGROUND

The recognition and delineation of morphologically indistinguishable cryptic species can have broad implications for wildlife conservation, disease ecology and accurate estimates of biodiversity. Parasites are intriguing in the study of cryptic speciation because unique evolutionary pressures and diversifying factors are generated by ecological characteristics of host-parasite relationships, including host specificity. Bat flies (Diptera: Nycteribiidae and Streblidae) are obligate, hematophagous ectoparasites of bats that generally exhibit high host specificity. One rare exception is Penicillidia fulvida (Diptera: Nycteribiidae), an African bat fly found in association with many phylogenetically distant hosts. One explanation for P. fulvida's extreme polyxeny is that it may represent a complex of host-specific yet cryptic species, an increasingly common finding in molecular genetic studies of supposed generalist parasites.

METHODS

A total of 65 P. fulvida specimens were collected at 14 localities across Kenya, from bat species representing six bat families. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) and nuclear 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences were obtained from 59 specimens and used to construct Bayesian and maximum likelihood phylogenies. Analysis of molecular variance was used to determine how genetic variation in P. fulvida was allocated among host taxa.

RESULTS

The 28S rRNA sequences studied were invariant within P. fulvida. Some genetic structure was present in the COI sequence data, but this could be more parsimoniously explained by geography than host family.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the status of P. fulvida as a rare example of a single bat fly species with primary host associations spanning multiple bat families. Gene flow among P. fulvida utilizing different host species may be promoted by polyspecific roosting behavior in bats, and host preference may also be malleable based on bat assemblages occupying shared roosts. The proclivity of generalist parasites to switch hosts makes them more likely to vector or opportunistically transmit pathogens across host species boundaries. Consequently, the presence of polyxenous bat flies is an important consideration to disease ecology as bat flies become increasingly known to be associated with bat pathogens.

Cryptic biodiversity of tropical hesperiid caterpillar-attacking parasitoid wasps: three new species of Creagrura Townes (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Cremastinae) from Costa Rica and Perú

Background

We describe three new species of the previously monotypic genus Creagrura Townes from Central and South America: C.alejandromasisi sp. n. and C.rogerblancoi sp. n. from Costa Rica and C.allpahuaya sp. n. from Peru, all of which emphasise the unknown parasitoid insect diversity yet to be revealed in the tropics.

New information

Host relationships of the two Costa Rican species are described in detail. In addition, it is inferred that the Creagrura wasps find and oviposit in the caterpillar when it is exposed at night, rather than when it is concealed during daylight hours.

Net-Winged Midge Genus Blepharicera Macquart (Diptera: Blephariceridae) in China: The First DNA Barcode Database with Descriptions of Four New Species and Notes on Distribution

Mitochondrial (mt) cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI) gene is more and more widely used for DNA barcoding, which provides a rapid and timely identification as this technique is not limited by polymorphism, sex, and life stages and fundamentally complements traditional evolutionary taxonomy. The present study generated 33 mt COI sequences of seven Chinese Blepharicera Macquart, 1843 species with an average of 594 bp, which represent the first DNA barcode database for Chinese Blepharicera. Genetic distance analysis reveals that intraspecific distances in the genus are generally less than 1.7%, and interspecific distances range from 5.4% to 20.3%. Phylogenetic analysis shows that each species recovered in our analyses is separated from all neighboring species. Based on molecular and morphological data, four Blepharicera species from China, B. beishanica sp. nov., B. dushanzica sp. nov., B. nigra sp. nov. and B. xinjiangica sp. nov., are described and illustrated as new to science. Identification keys for adults and larvae of Chinese Blepharicera are also presented. Geographical analysis shows that Southwest China is the species’ richest region. Our results will be useful in tackling taxonomic problems, understanding species distribution, and resolving nomenclature conflicts associated with Blepharicera species.

More discussion of minimalist species descriptions and clarifying some misconceptions contained in Meier et al. 2021

This is a response to a preprint version of "A re-analysis of the data in Sharkey et al.'s (2021) minimalist revision reveals that BINs do not deserve names, but BOLD Systems needs a stronger commitment to open science", https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.28.441626v2. Meier et al. strongly criticized Sharkey et al.'s publication in which 403 new species were deliberately minimally described, based primarily on COI barcode sequence data. Here we respond to these criticisms. The following points are made: 1) Sharkey et al. did not equate BINs with species, as demonstrated in several examples in which multiple species were found to be in single BINs. 2) We reiterate that BINs were used as a preliminary sorting tool, just as preliminary morphological identification commonly sorts specimens based on color and size into unit trays; despite BINs and species concepts matching well over 90% of species, this matching does not equate to equality. 3) Consensus barcodes were used only to provide a diagnosis to conform to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature just as consensus morphological diagnoses are. The barcode of a holotype is definitive and simply part of its cellular morphology. 4) Minimalist revisions will facilitate and accelerate future taxonomic research, not hinder it. 5) We refute the claim that the BOLD sequences of Plesiocoelusvanachterbergi are pseudogenes and demonstrate that they simply represent a frameshift mutation. 6) We reassert our observation that morphological evidence alone is insufficient to recognize species within species-rich higher taxa and that its usefulness lies in character states that are congruent with molecular data. 7) We show that in the cases in which COI barcodes code for the same amino acids in different putative species, data from morphology, host specificity, and other ecological traits reaffirm their utility as indicators of genetically distinct lineages.

Exploring Large-Scale Patterns of Genetic Variation in the COI Gene among Insecta: Implications for DNA Barcoding and Threshold-Based Species Delimitation Studies

The genetic variation in the COI gene has had a great effect on the final results of species delimitation studies. However, little research has comprehensively investigated the genetic divergence in COI among Insecta. The fast-growing COI data in BOLD provide an opportunity for the comprehensive appraisal of the genetic variation in COI among Insecta. We calculated the K2P distance of 64,414 insect species downloaded from BOLD. The match ratios of the clustering analysis, based on different thresholds, were also compared among 4288 genera (35,068 species). The results indicate that approximately one-quarter of the species of Insecta showed high intraspecific genetic variation (>3%), and a conservative estimate of this proportion ranges from 12.05% to 22.58%. The application of empirical thresholds (e.g., 2% and 3%) in the clustering analysis may result in the overestimation of the species diversity. If the minimum interspecific genetic distance of the congeneric species is greater than or equal to 2%, it is possible to avoid overestimating the species diversity on the basis of the empirical thresholds. In comparison to the fixed thresholds, the “threshOpt” and “localMinima” algorithms are recommended for the provision of a reference threshold for threshold-based species delimitation studies.

Phylogenetic signal of sub-arctic beetle communities

Postglacial dispersal and colonization processes have shaped community patterns in sub-Arctic regions such as Churchill, Manitoba, and Canada. This study investigates evolutionary community structure within the beetle (Coleoptera) families of Churchill and tests whether biological traits have played a role in governing colonization patterns from refugial and southerly geographic regions. This study quantifies sub-Arctic beetle phylogenetic community structure for each family using the net relatedness index (NRI) and nearest taxon index (NTI), calculated using publicly available data from the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD); compares patterns across families with different traits (habitat, diet) using standard statistical analysis (ANOVA) as well as phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) using a family-level beetle phylogeny obtained from the literature; and compares community structure in Churchill with a region in southern Canada (Guelph, Ontario). These analyses were also repeated at a genus level. The dominant pattern detected in our study was that aquatic families were much better represented in Churchill compared to terrestrial families, when compared against richness sampled from across Canada and Alaska. Individually, most families showed significant phylogenetic clustering in Churchill, likely due to the strong environmental filtering present in Arctic environments. There was no significant difference in phylogenetic structure between Churchill and Guelph but with a trend toward stronger clustering in the North. Fungivores were significantly more overdispersed than other feeding modes, predators were significantly more clustered, and aquatic families showed significantly stronger clustering compared to terrestrial. This study contributes to our understanding of the traits and processes structuring insect biodiversity and macroecological trends in the sub-Arctic.

SPEDE‐sampler: an R Shiny application to assess how methodological choices and taxon‐sampling can affect Generalised Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC) output and interpretation

Species delimitation tools are vital to taxonomy and the discovery of new species. These tools can make use of genetic data to estimate species boundaries, where one of the most widely used methods is the Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC) model. Despite its popularity, a number of factors are known to influence the performance and resulting inferences of the GMYC. Moreover, the few studies that have assessed model performance to date have been predominantly based on simulated data sets, where model assumptions are not violated. Here, we present a user‐friendly R Shiny application, ‘SPEDE‐sampler’ (SPEcies DElimitation sampler), that assesses the effect of computational and methodological choices, in combination with sampling effects, on the GMYC model. Output phylogenies are used to test the effect that (1) sample size, (2) BEAST and GMYC parameters (e.g. prior settings, single vs multiple threshold, clock model), and (3) singletons have on GMYC output. Optional predefined grouping information (e.g. morphospecies/ecotypes) can be uploaded in order to compare it with GMYC species and estimate percentage match scores. Additionally, predefined groups that contribute to inflated species richness estimates are identified by SPEDE‐sampler, allowing for the further investigation of potential cryptic species or geographical substructuring in those groups. Merging by the GMYC is also recorded to identify where traditional taxonomy has overestimated species numbers. Four worked examples are provided to illustrate the functionality of the program's workflow, and the variation that can arise when applying the GMYC model to empirical data sets. The R Shiny program is available for download at https://github.com/clarkevansteenderen/spede_sampler_R.

Pragmatic Applications and Universality of DNA Barcoding for Substantial Organisms at Species Level: A Review to Explore a Way Forward

DNA barcodes are regarded as hereditary succession codes that serve as a recognition marker to address several queries relating to the identification, classification, community ecology, and evolution of certain functional traits in organisms. The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CO1) gene as a DNA barcode is highly efficient for discriminating vertebrate and invertebrate animal species. Similarly, different specific markers are used for other organisms, including ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (rbcL), maturase kinase (matK), transfer RNA-H and photosystem II D1-ApbsArabidopsis thaliana (trnH-psbA), and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) for plant species; 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA), elongation factor Tu gene (Tuf gene), and chaperonin for bacterial strains; and nuclear ITS for fungal strains. Nevertheless, the taxon coverage of reference sequences is far from complete for genus or species-level identification. Applying the next-generation sequencing approach to the parallel acquisition of DNA barcode sequences could greatly expand the potential for library preparation or accurate identification in biodiversity research. Overall, this review articulates on the DNA barcoding technology as applied to different organisms, its universality, applicability, and innovative approach to handling DNA-based species identification.

Dietary abundance distributions: Dominance and diversity in vertebrate diets

Diet composition is among the most important yet least understood dimensions of animal ecology. Inspired by the study of species abundance distributions (SADs), we tested for generalities in the structure of vertebrate diets by characterising them as dietary abundance distributions (DADs). We compiled data on 1167 population-level diets, representing >500 species from six vertebrate classes, spanning all continents and oceans. DADs near-universally (92.5%) followed a hollow-curve shape, with scant support for other plausible rank-abundance-distribution shapes. This strong generality is inherently related to, yet incompletely explained by, the SADs of available food taxa. By quantifying dietary generalisation as the half-saturation point of the cumulative distribution of dietary abundance (sp50, minimum number of foods required to account for 50% of diet), we found that vertebrate populations are surprisingly specialised: in most populations, fewer than three foods accounted for at least half the diet. Variation in sp50 was strongly associated with consumer type, with carnivores being more specialised than herbivores or omnivores. Other methodological (sampling method and effort, taxonomic resolution), biological (body mass, frugivory) and biogeographic (latitude) factors influenced sp50 to varying degrees. Future challenges include identifying the mechanisms underpinning the hollow-curve DAD, its generality beyond vertebrates, and the biological determinants of dietary generalisation.

A re-analysis of the data in Sharkey et al.'s (2021) minimalist revision reveals that BINs do not deserve names, but BOLD Systems needs a stronger commitment to open science

Halting biodiversity decline is one of the most critical challenges for humanity, but monitoring biodiversity is hampered by taxonomic impediments. One impediment is the large number of undescribed species (here called "dark taxon impediment") whereas another is caused by the large number of superficial species descriptions, that can only be resolved by consulting type specimens ("superficial description impediment"). Recently, Sharkey et al. (2021) proposed to address the dark taxon impediment for Costa Rican braconid wasps by describing 403 species based on COI barcode clusters ("BINs") computed by BOLD Systems. More than 99% of the BINs (387 of 390) were converted into species by assigning binominal names (e.g. BIN "BOLD:ACM9419" becomes Bracon federicomatarritai) and adding a minimal diagnosis (consisting only of a consensus barcode for most species). We here show that many of Sharkey et al.'s species are unstable when the underlying data are analyzed using different species delimitation algorithms. Add the insufficiently informative diagnoses, and many of these species will become the next "superficial description impediment" for braconid taxonomy because they will have to be tested and redescribed after obtaining sufficient evidence for confidently delimiting species. We furthermore show that Sharkey et al.'s approach of using consensus barcodes as diagnoses is not functional because it cannot be applied consistently. Lastly, we reiterate that COI alone is not suitable for delimiting and describing species, and voice concerns over Sharkey et al.'s uncritical use of BINs because they are calculated by a proprietary algorithm (RESL) that uses a mixture of public and private data. We urge authors, reviewers and editors to maintain high standards in taxonomy by only publishing new species that are rigorously delimited with open-access tools and supported by publicly available evidence.

Beyond taxonomy: species complexes in New World phlebotomine sand flies

A species complex (= species group, species series) is an assemblage of species, which are related morphologically and phylogenetically. Recent research has revealed several arthropod vector species that were believed to be a single nominal species actually representing a group of closely related species, which are sometimes morphologically indistinguishable at one or more developmental stages. In some instances, differences in terms of vector competence, capacity, or both have been recorded. It highlights the importance of detecting and studying species complexes to improve our understanding of pathogen transmission patterns, which may be vectored more or less efficiently by different species within the complex. Considering more than 540 species, about one-third of the phlebotomine sand flies in the New World present males and/or females morphologically indistinguishable to one or more species. Remarkably, several of these species may act in transmission of pathogenic agents. In this article, we review recent research on species complexes in phlebotomine sand flies from the Americas. Possible practical implications of recently acquired knowledge and future research needs are also discussed.

The explosive radiation, intense host-shifts and long-term failure to speciate in the evolutionary history of the feather mite genus Analges (Acariformes: Analgidae) from European passerines

Mites of the genus Analges (Acariformes: Analgidae) inhabit the down feathers of passeriform birds. The evolutionary history of Analges and the co-phylogentic relationships between these mites and their hosts are unknown. Our phylogenetic analysis supported the monophyly of the genus, but it did not support previous taxonomic hypotheses subdividing the genus into the subgenera Analges and Analgopsis or arranging some species into the A. chelopus and A. passerinus species groups. Molecular data reveal seven new species inhabiting Eurasian passerines and support the existence of several multi-host species. According to molecular dating, the origin of the Analges (c. 41 Mya) coincided with the Eocene diversification of Passerida into Sylvioidea and Muscicapoidea–Passeroidea. The initial diversification of Analges took place on the Muscicapoidea clade, while remaining passerine superfamilies appear to have been colonized because of host-switching. Co-speciation appears to be relatively common among Analges species and their hosts, but the most striking pattern in the co-phylogenetic scenario involves numerous complete host-switches, spreads and several failures to speciate. The mechanism of long-term gene-flow among different populations of multi-host Analges species is enigmatic and difficult to resolve. Probably, in some cases mites could be transferred between birds via feathers used as nest material.

Evidence for multiple colonisations and Wolbachia infections shaping the genetic structure of the widespread butterfly Polyommatus icarus in the British Isles

The paradigm of isolation in southern refugia during glacial periods followed by expansions during interglacials, producing limited genetic differentiation in northern areas, dominates European phylogeography. However, the existence of complex structured populations in formerly glaciated areas, and islands connected to mainland areas during glacial maxima, call for alternative explanations. We reconstructed the mtDNA phylogeography of the widespread Polyommatus Icarus butterfly with an emphasis on the formerly glaciated and connected British Isles. We found distinct geographical structuring of CO1 haplogroups, with an ancient lineage restricted to the marginal European areas, including Northern Scotland and Outer Hebrides. Population genomic analyses, using ddRADSeq genomic markers, also reveal substantial genetic structuring within Britain. However, there is negligble mito-nuclear concordance consistent with independent demographic histories of mitochondrial versus nuclear DNA. While mtDNA-Wolbachia associations in northern Britain could account for the geographic structuring of mtDNA across most of the British Isles, for nuclear DNA markers (derived from ddRADseq data) butterflies from France cluster between northern and southern British populations - an observation consistent with a scenario of multiple recolonisation. Taken together our results suggest that contemporary mtDNA structuring in the British Isles (and potentially elsewhere in Europe) largely results from Wolbachia infections, however, nuclear genomic structuring suggests a history of at least two distinct colonisations. This two-stage colonisation scenario has previously been put forth to explain genetic diversity and structuring in other British flora and fauna. Additionally, we also present preliminary evidence for potential Wolbachia-induced feminization in the Outer Hebrides.

Congruence between morphology-based species and Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) in Neotropical Eumaeini (Lycaenidae)

BACKGROUND

With about 1,000 species in the Neotropics, the Eumaeini (Theclinae) are one of the most diverse butterfly tribes. Correct morphology-based identifications are challenging in many genera due to relatively little interspecific differences in wing patterns. Geographic infraspecific variation is sometimes more substantial than variation between species. In this paper we present a large DNA barcode dataset of South American Lycaenidae. We analyze how well DNA barcode BINs match morphologically delimited species.

METHODS

We compare morphology-based species identifications with the clustering of molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) delimitated by the RESL algorithm in BOLD, which assigns Barcode Index Numbers (BINs). We examine intra- and interspecific divergences for genera represented by at least four morphospecies. We discuss the existence of local barcode gaps in a genus by genus analysis. We also note differences in the percentage of species with barcode gaps in groups of lowland and high mountain genera.

RESULTS

We identified 2,213 specimens and obtained 1,839 sequences of 512 species in 90 genera. Overall, the mean intraspecific divergence value of CO1 sequences was 1.20%, while the mean interspecific divergence between nearest congeneric neighbors was 4.89%, demonstrating the presence of a barcode gap. However, the gap seemed to disappear from the entire set when comparing the maximum intraspecific distance (8.40%) with the minimum interspecific distance (0.40%). Clear barcode gaps are present in many genera but absent in others. From the set of specimens that yielded COI fragment lengths of at least 650 bp, 75% of the a priori morphology-based identifications were unambiguously assigned to a single Barcode Index Number (BIN). However, after a taxonomic a posteriori review, the percentage of matched identifications rose to 85%. BIN splitting was observed for 17% of the species and BIN sharing for 9%. We found that genera that contain primarily lowland species show higher percentages of local barcode gaps and congruence between BINs and morphology than genera that contain exclusively high montane species. The divergence values to the nearest neighbors were significantly lower in high Andean species while the intra-specific divergence values were significantly lower in the lowland species. These results raise questions regarding the causes of observed low inter and high intraspecific genetic variation. We discuss incomplete lineage sorting and hybridization as most likely causes of this phenomenon, as the montane species concerned are relatively young and hybridization is probable. The release of our data set represents an essential baseline for a reference library for biological assessment studies of butterflies in mega diverse countries using modern high-throughput technologies an highlights the necessity of taxonomic revisions for various genera combining both molecular and morphological data.

Revison of Metaplagia Coquillett (Diptera: Tachinidae) with description of five new species from Area de Conservación Guanacaste in northwestern Costa Rica

Background

We revise the genus Metaplagia Coquillett, 1895 and describe five new species from Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica. All new species were reared from an ongoing inventory of wild-caught caterpillars spanning a variety of species within the family Sphingidae (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae). Our study provides a concise description of each new species using morphology, life history, molecular data and photographic documentation. In addition to the new species, the authors provide a re-description of the genus and a revised key to the species of Metaplagia.

New information

The following five new species of Metaplagia are described: Metaplagialeahdennisae Fleming & Wood sp. n., Metaplagialindarobinsonae Fleming & Wood sp. n., Metaplagiapaulinesaribasae Fleming & Wood sp. n., Metaplagiarobinsherwoodae Fleming & Wood sp. n. and Metaplagiasvetlanakozikae Fleming & Wood sp. n.

The following is proposed by Fleming & Wood as new combination of Plagiomima Brauer & Bergenstamm, 1891: Plagiomimalatifrons (Reinhard, 1956) comb. n.

A taxonomist's nightmare - Cryptic diversity in Caribbean intertidal arthropods (Arachnida, Acari, Oribatida)

There has been a long controversy about what defines a species and how to delimitate them which resulted in the existence of more than two dozen different species concepts. Recent research on so-called "cryptic species" heated up this debate as some scientists argue that these cryptic species are only a result of incompatible species concepts. While this may be true, we should keep in mind that all concepts are nothing more than human constructs and that the phenomenon of high phenotypic similarity despite reproductive isolation is real. To investigate and understand this phenomenon it is important to classify and name cryptic species as it allows to communicate them with other fields of science that use Linnaean binomials. To provide a common framework for the description of cryptic species, we propose a possible protocol of how to formally name and describe these taxa in practice. The most important point of this protocol is to explain which species concept was used to delimitate the cryptic taxon. As a model, we present the case of the allegedly widespread Caribbean intertidal mite Thalassozetes barbara, which in fact consists of seven phenotypically very similar but genetically distinct species. All species are island or short-range endemics with poor dispersal abilities that have evolved in geographic isolation. Stabilizing selection caused by the extreme conditions of the intertidal environment is suggested to be responsible for the morphological stasis of this cryptic species complex.

Promiscuous specialists: Host specificity patterns among generalist louse flies

Ectoparasites such as louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) have tendency for host specialization, which is driven by adaptation to host biology as well as competition avoidance between parasites of the same host. However, some louse fly species, especially in genera attacking birds, show wide range of suitable hosts. In the presented study, we have surveyed the current status of bird specific louse flies in Finland to provide comprehensive host association data to analyse the ecological requirements of the generalist species. A thorough sampling of 9342 birds, representing 134 species, recovered 576 specimens of louse flies, belonging to six species: Crataerina hirundinis, C. pallida, Ornithomya avicularia, O. chloropus, O. fringillina and Ornithophila metallica. Despite some overlapping hosts, the three Ornithomya species showed a notable pattern in their host preference, which was influenced not only by the host size but also by the habitat and host breeding strategy. We also provide DNA barcodes for ten Finnish species of Hippoboscidae, which can be used as a resource for species identification as well as metabarcoding studies in the future.

To us insectometers, it is clear that insect decline in our Costa Rican tropics is real, so let's be kind to the survivors

We have been field observers of tropical insects on four continents and, since 1978, intense observers of caterpillars, their parasites, and their associates in the 1,260 km² of dry, cloud, and rain forests of Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica. ACG's natural ecosystem restoration began with its national park designation in 1971. As human biomonitors, or "insectometers," we see that ACG's insect species richness and density have gradually declined since the late 1970s, and more intensely since about 2005. The overarching perturbation is climate change. It has caused increasing ambient temperatures for all ecosystems; more erratic seasonal cues; reduced, erratic, and asynchronous rainfall; heated air masses sliding up the volcanoes and burning off the cloud forest; and dwindling biodiversity in all ACG terrestrial ecosystems. What then is the next step as climate change descends on ACG's many small-scale successes in sustainable biodevelopment? Be kind to the survivors by stimulating and facilitating their owner societies to value them as legitimate members of a green sustainable nation. Encourage national bioliteracy, BioAlfa.

Low host specificity and broad geographical ranges in a community of parasitic non-pollinating fig wasps (Sycoryctinae; Chalcidoidea)

Plants, phytophagous insects and their parasitoids form the most diverse assemblages of macroscopic organisms on earth. Enclosed assemblages in particular represent a tractable system for studying community assembly and diversification. Communities associated with widespread plant species are especially suitable as they facilitate a comparative approach. Pantropical fig-wasp communities represent a remarkably well-replicated system, ideal for studying these historical processes. We expect high dispersal ability in non-pollinating fig wasps to result in lower geographical turnover in comparison to pollinating fig wasps. The ability of non-pollinating wasps to utilise a number of hosts (low host specificity) is a key determinant of overall geographical range, with intraspecific competition becoming a constraining factor should diet breadth overlap among species. Finally, we expect conserved community structure throughout the host range. We aim to test these expectations, derived from population genetic and community studies, using the multi-trophic insect community associated with Ficus hirta throughout its 3,500 km range across continental and insular Asia. We collect molecular evidence from one coding mitochondrial gene, one non-coding nuclear gene and multiple microsatellites across 25 geographical sites. Using these data, we establish species boundaries, determine levels of host specificity among non-pollinating fig wasps and quantify geographical variation in community composition. We find low host specificity in two genera of non-pollinating fig wasps. Functional community structure is largely conserved across the range of the host fig, despite limited correspondence between the ranges of non-pollinator and pollinator species. While nine pollinators are associated with Ficus hirta, the two non-pollinator tribes developing in its figs each contained only four species. Contrary to predictions, we find stronger isolation by distance in non-pollinators than pollinators. Long-lived non-pollinators may disperse more gradually and be less reliant on infrequent long-distance dispersal by wind currents. Segregation among non-pollinating species across their range is suggestive of competitive exclusion and we propose that this may be a result of increased levels of local adaptation and moderate, but regular, rates of dispersal. Our findings provide one more example of lack of strict codiversification in the geographical diversification of plant-associated insect communities.

Genetics of wild and mass-reared populations of a generalist aphid parasitoid and improvement of biological control

Due to their ability to parasitize various insect species, generalist parasitoids are widely used as biological control agents. They can be mass-reared and released in agroecosystems to control several pest species in various crops. However, the existence of genetic differentiation among populations of generalist parasitoid species is increasingly recognized and this can be associated with an adaptation to local conditions or to a reduced range of host species. Moreover, constraints of mass-rearing conditions can alter genetic variation within parasitoid populations released. These features could be associated with a reduced efficiency of the control of targeted pest species. Here, we focused on strawberry greenhouses where the control of aphids with the generalist parasitoid Aphidius ervi appears to be inefficient. We investigated whether this inefficiency may have both genetic and ecological bases comparing wild and commercial populations of A. ervi. We used two complementary genetic approaches: one based on the mitochondrial marker COI and one based on microsatellite markers. COI analysis showed a genetic differentiation within the A. ervi species, but the structure was neither associated with the commercial/wild status nor with host species factors. On the other hand, using microsatellite markers, we showed a genetic differentiation between commercial and wild A. ervi populations associated with a loss of genetic diversity within the mass-reared populations. Our ecological genetics study may potentially explain the weak efficiency of biological control of aphids in protected strawberry crops and enable to provide some insights to improve biological control.

CO1-Based DNA barcoding for assessing diversity of Pteropus giganteus from the state of Azad Jammu Kashmir, Pakistan

The flying fox (Pteropus giganteus) also familiar with the name of the greater Indian fruit Bat belongs to the order Chiroptera and family Pteropodidae. Current research emphasis on the DNA barcoding of P. giganteus in Azad Jammu Kashmir. Bat sequences were amplified and PCR products were sequenced and examined by bioinformatics software. Congeneric and conspecific, nucleotide composition and K2P nucleotide deviation, haplotype diversity and the number of haplotypes were estimated. The analysis showed that all of the five studied samples of P. giganteus had low G contents (G 19.8%) than C (27.8%), A (25.1%) and T (27.3%) contents. The calculated haplotype diversity was 0.60% and the mean intraspecific K2P distance was 0.001% having a high number of transitional substitutions. The study suggested that P. giganteus (R=0.00) do not deviate from the neutral evolution. It was determined from the conclusion that this mtDNA gene is a better marker for identification of Bat species than nuclear genes due to its distinctive characteristics and may serve as a landmark for the identification of interconnected species at the molecular level and in the determination of population genetics.

Minimalist revision and description of 403 new species in 11 subfamilies of Costa Rican braconid parasitoid wasps, including host records for 219 species

Three new genera are described: Michener (Proteropinae), Bioalfa (Rogadinae), and Hermosomastax (Rogadinae). Keys are given for the New World genera of the following braconid subfamilies: Agathidinae, Braconinae, Cheloninae, Homolobinae, Hormiinae, Ichneutinae, Macrocentrinae, Orgilinae, Proteropinae, Rhysipolinae, and Rogadinae. In these subfamilies 416 species are described or redescribed. Most of the species have been reared and all but 13 are new to science. A consensus sequence of the COI barcodes possessed by each species is employed to diagnose the species, and this approach is justified in the introduction. Most descriptions consist of a lateral or dorsal image of the holotype, a diagnostic COI consensus barcode, the Barcode Index Number (BIN) code with a link to the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD), and the holotype specimen information required by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. The following species are treated and those lacking authorship are newly described here with authorship attributable to Sharkey except for the new species of Macrocentrinae which are by Sharkey & van Achterberg: AGATHIDINAE: Aerophiluspaulmarshi, Mesocoelusdavidsmithi, Neothlipsisbobkulai, Plesiocoelusvanachterbergi, Pneumagathiserythrogastra (Cameron, 1905), Therophilusbobwhartoni, T.donaldquickei, T.gracewoodae, T.maetoi, T.montywoodi, T.penteadodiasae, Zacremnopsbrianbrowni, Z.coatlicue Sharkey, 1990, Zacremnopscressoni (Cameron, 1887), Z.ekchuah Sharkey, 1990, Z.josefernandezi, Zelomorphasarahmeierottoae. BRACONINAE: Braconalejandromarini, B.alejandromasisi, B.alexamasisae, B.andresmarini, B.andrewwalshi, B.anniapicadoae, B.anniemoriceae, B.barryhammeli, B.bernardoespinozai, B.carlossanabriai, B.chanchini, B.christophervallei, B.erasmocoronadoi, B.eugeniephillipsae, B.federicomatarritai, B.frankjoycei, B.gerardovegai, B.germanvegai, B.isidrochaconi, B.jimlewisi, B.josejaramilloi, B.juanjoseoviedoi, B.juliodiazi, B.luzmariaromeroae, B.manuelzumbadoi, B.marialuisariasae, B.mariamartachavarriae, B.mariorivasi, B.melissaespinozae, B.nelsonzamorai, B.nicklaphami, B.ninamasisae, B.oliverwalshi, B.paulamarinae, B.rafamoralesi, B.robertofernandezi, B.rogerblancoi, B.ronaldzunigai, B.sigifredomarini, B.tihisiaboshartae, B.wilberthbrizuelai, Digonogastramontylloydi, D.montywoodi, D.motohasegawai, D.natwheelwrighti, D.nickgrishini. CHELONINAE: Adeliusadrianguadamuzi, A.gauldi Shimbori & Shaw, 2019, A.janzeni Shimbori & Shaw, 2019, Ascogastergloriasihezarae, A.grettelvegae, A.guillermopereirai, A.gustavoecheverrii, A.katyvandusenae, A.luisdiegogomezi, Chelonusalejandrozaldivari, C.gustavogutierrezi, C.gustavoinduni, C.harryramirezi, C.hartmanguidoi, C.hazelcambroneroae, C.iangauldi, C.isidrochaconi, C.janecheverriae, C.jeffmilleri, C.jennyphillipsae, C.jeremydewaardi, C.jessiehillae, C.jesusugaldei, C.jimlewisi, C.jimmilleri, C.jimwhitfieldi, C.johanvalerioi, C.johnburnsi, C.johnnoyesi, C.jorgebaltodanoi, C.jorgehernandezi, C.josealfredohernandezi, C.josefernandeztrianai, C.josehernandezcortesi, C.josemanuelperezi, C.josephinerodriguezae, C.juanmatai, C.junkoshimurae, C.kateperezae, C.luciariosae, C.luzmariaromeroae, C.manuelpereirai, C.manuelzumbadoi, C.marianopereirai, C.maribellealvarezae, C.markmetzi, C.markshawi, C.martajimenezae, C.mayrabonillae, C.meganmiltonae, C.melaniamunozae, C.michaelstroudi, C.michellevanderbankae, C.mingfangi, C.minorcarmonai, C.monikaspringerae, C.moniquegilbertae, C.motohasegawai, C.nataliaivanovae, C.nelsonzamorai, C.normwoodleyi, C.osvaldoespinozai, C.pamelacastilloae, C.paulgoldsteini, C.paulhansoni, C.paulheberti, C.petronariosae, C.ramyamanjunathae, C.randallgarciai, C.rebeccakittelae, C.robertoespinozai, C.robertofernandezi, C.rocioecheverriae, C.rodrigogamezi, C.ronaldzunigai, C.rosibelelizondoae, C.rostermoragai, C.ruthfrancoae, C.scottmilleri, C.scottshawi, C.sergioriosi, C.sigifredomarini, C.stevearonsoni, C.stevestroudi, C.sujeevanratnasinghami, C.sureshnaiki, C.torbjornekremi, C.yeimycedenoae, Leptodrepanaalexisae, L.erasmocoronadoi, L.felipechavarriai, L.freddyquesadai, L.gilbertfuentesi, L.manuelriosi, Phanerotomaalmasolisae, P.alvaroherrerai, P.anacordobae, P.anamariamongeae, P.andydeansi, P.angelagonzalezae, P.angelsolisi, P.barryhammeli, P.bernardoespinozai, P.calixtomoragai, P.carolinacanoae, P.christerhanssoni, P.christhompsoni, P.davesmithi, P.davidduthiei, P.dirksteinkei, P.donquickei, P.duniagarciae, P.duvalierbricenoi, P.eddysanchezi, P.eldarayae, P.eliethcantillanoae, P.jenopappi, Pseudophanerotomaalanflemingi, Ps.albanjimenezi, Ps.alejandromarini, Ps.alexsmithi, Ps.allisonbrownae, Ps.bobrobbinsi. HOMOLOBINAE: Exasticolusjennyphillipsae, E.randallgarciai, E.robertofernandezi, E.sigifredomarini, E.tomlewinsoni. HORMIINAE: Hormiusanamariamongeae, H.angelsolisi, H.anniapicadoae, H.arthurchapmani, H.barryhammeli, H.carmenretanae, H.carloswalkeri, H.cesarsuarezi, H.danbrooksi, H.eddysanchezi, H.erikframstadi, H.georgedavisi, H.grettelvegae, H.gustavoinduni, H.hartmanguidoi, H.hectoraritai, H.hesiquiobenitezi, H.irenecanasae, H.isidrochaconi, H.jaygallegosi, H.jimbeachi, H.jimlewisi, H.joelcracrafti, H.johanvalerioi, H.johnburleyi, H.joncoddingtoni, H.jorgecarvajali, H.juanmatai, H.manuelzumbadoi, H.mercedesfosterae, H.modonnellyae, H.nelsonzamorai, H.pamelacastilloae, H.raycypessi, H.ritacolwellae, H.robcolwelli, H.rogerblancosegurai, H.ronaldzunigai, H.russchapmani, H.virginiaferrisae, H.warrenbrighami, H.willsflowersi. ICHNEUTINAE: Oligoneuruskriskrishtalkai, O.jorgejimenezi, Paroligoneuruselainehoaglandae, P.julianhumphriesi, P.mikeiviei. MACROCENTRINAE: Austrozelejorgecampabadali, A.jorgesoberoni, Dolichozelegravitarsis (Muesebeck, 1938), D.josefernandeztrianai, D.josephinerodriguezae, Hymenochaoniakalevikulli, H.kateperezae, H.katherinebaillieae, H.katherineellisonae, H.katyvandusenae, H.kazumifukunagae, H.keithlangdoni, H.keithwillmotti, H.kenjinishidai, H.kimberleysheldonae, H.krisnorvigae, H.lilianamadrigalae, H.lizlangleyae, Macrocentrusfredsingeri, M.geoffbarnardi, M.gregburtoni, M.gretchendailyae, M.grettelvegae, M.gustavogutierrezi, M.hannahjamesae, M.harisridhari, M.hillaryrosnerae, M.hiroshikidonoi, M.iangauldi, M.jennyphillipsae, M.jesseausubeli, M.jessemaysharkae, M.jimwhitfieldi, M.johnbrowni, M.johnburnsi, M.jonathanfranzeni, M.jonathanrosenbergi, M.jorgebaltodanoi, M.lucianocapelli. ORGILINAE: Orgilusamyrossmanae, O.carrolyoonae, O.christhompsoni, O.christinemcmahonae, O.dianalipscombae, O.ebbenielsoni, O.elizabethpennisiae, O.evertlindquisti, O.genestoermeri, O.jamesriegeri, O.jeanmillerae, O.jeffmilleri, O.jerrypowelli, O.jimtiedjei, O.johnlundbergi, O.johnpipolyi, O.jorgellorentei, O.larryspearsi, O.marlinricei, O.mellissaespinozae, O.mikesmithi, O.normplatnicki, O.peterrauchi, O.richardprimacki, O.sandraberriosae, O.sarahmirandae, O.scottmilleri, O.scottmorii, Stantoniabillalleni, S.brookejarvisae, S.donwilsoni, S.erikabjorstromae, S.garywolfi, S.henrikekmani, S.luismirandai, S.miriamzunzae, S.quentinwheeleri, S.robinkazmierae, S.ruthtifferae. PROTEROPINAE: Hebichneutestricolor Sharkey & Wharton, 1994, Proteropsiangauldi, P.vickifunkae, Michenercharlesi. RHYSIPOLINAE: Pseudorhysipolisluisfonsecai, P. mailyngonzalezaeRhysipolisjulioquirosi. ROGADINAE: Aleiodesadrianaradulovae, A.adrianforsythi, A.agnespeelleae, A.alaneaglei, A.alanflemingi, A.alanhalevii, A.alejandromasisi, A.alessandracallejae, A.alexsmithi, A.alfonsopescadori, A.alisundermieri, A.almasolisae, A.alvarougaldei, A.alvaroumanai, A.angelsolisi, A.annhowdenae, A.bobandersoni, A.carolinagodoyae, A.charlieobrieni, A.davefurthi, A.donwhiteheadi, A.doylemckeyi, A.frankhovorei, A.henryhowdeni, A.inga Shimbori & Shaw, 2020, A.johnchemsaki, A.johnkingsolveri, A.gonodontovorus Shimbori & Shaw, 2020, A.manuelzumbadoi, A.mayrabonillae, A.michelledsouzae, A.mikeiviei, A.normwoodleyi, A.pammitchellae, A.pauljohnsoni, A.rosewarnerae, A.steveashei, A.terryerwini, A.willsflowersi, Bioalfapedroleoni, B.alvarougaldei, B.rodrigogamezi, Choreborogasandydeansi, C.eladiocastroi, C.felipechavarriai, C.frankjoycei, Clinocentrusandywarreni, Cl.angelsolisi, Cystomastaxalexhausmanni, Cy.angelagonzalezae, Cy.ayaigarashiae, Hermosomastaxclavifemorus Quicke sp. nov., Heterogamusdonstonei, Pseudoyeliconesbernsweeneyi, Stiropiusbencrairi, S.berndkerni, S.edgargutierrezi, S.edwilsoni, S.ehakernae, Triraphisbillfreelandi, T.billmclarneyi, T.billripplei, T.bobandersoni, T.bobrobbinsi, T.bradzlotnicki, T.brianbrowni, T.brianlaueri, T.briannestjacquesae, T.camilocamargoi, T.carlosherrerai, T.carolinepalmerae, T.charlesmorrisi, T.chigiybinellae, T.christerhanssoni, T.christhompsoni, T.conniebarlowae, T.craigsimonsi, T.defectus Valerio, 2015, T.danielhubi, T.davidduthiei, T.davidwahli, T.federicomatarritai, T.ferrisjabri, T.mariobozai, T.martindohrni, T.matssegnestami, T.mehrdadhajibabaei, T.ollieflinti, T.tildalauerae, Yeliconesdirksteinkei, Y.markmetzi, Y.monserrathvargasae, Y.tricolor Quicke, 1996. Y.woldai Quicke, 1996.

The following new combinations are proposed: Neothlipsissmithi (Ashmead), new combination for Microdussmithi Ashmead, 1894; Neothlipsispygmaeus (Enderlein), new combination for Microduspygmaeus Enderlein, 1920; Neothlipsisunicinctus (Ashmead), new combination for Microdusunicinctus Ashmead, 1894; Therophilusanomalus (Bortoni and Penteado-Dias) new combination for Plesiocoelusanomalus Bortoni and Penteado-Dias, 2015; Aerophilusareolatus (Bortoni and Penteado-Dias) new combination for Plesiocoelusareolatus Bortoni and Penteado-Dias, 2015; Pneumagathiserythrogastra (Cameron) new combination for Agathiserythrogastra Cameron, 1905. Dolichozelecitreitarsis (Enderlein), new combination for Paniscozelecitreitarsis Enderlein, 1920. Dolichozelefuscivertex (Enderlein) new combination for Paniscozelefuscivertex Enderlein, 1920. Finally, Bassusbrooksi Sharkey, 1998 is synonymized with Agathiserythrogastra Cameron, 1905; Paniscozelegriseipes Enderlein, 1920 is synonymized with Dolichozelekoebelei Viereck, 1911; Paniscozelecarinifrons Enderlein, 1920 is synonymized with Dolichozelefuscivertex (Enderlein, 1920); and Paniscozelenigricauda Enderlein,1920 is synonymized with Dolichozelequaestor (Fabricius, 1804). (originally described as Ophionquaestor Fabricius, 1804).

Spatial scale and structure of complex life cycle trematode parasite communities in streams

By considering the role of site-level factors and dispersal, metacommunity concepts have advanced our understanding of the processes that structure ecological communities. In dendritic systems, like streams and rivers, these processes may be impacted by network connectivity and unidirectional current. Streams and rivers are central to the dispersal of many pathogens, including parasites with complex, multi-host life cycles. Patterns in parasite distribution and diversity are often driven by host dispersal. We conducted two studies at different spatial scales (within and across stream networks) to investigate the importance of local and regional processes that structure trematode (parasitic flatworms) communities in streams. First, we examined trematode communities in first-intermediate host snails (Elimia proxima) in a survey of Appalachian headwater streams within the Upper New River Basin to assess regional turnover in community structure. We analyzed trematode communities based on both morphotype (visual identification) and haplotype (molecular identification), as cryptic diversity in larval trematodes could mask important community-level variation. Second, we examined communities at multiple sites (headwaters and main stem) within a stream network to assess potential roles of network position and downstream drift. Across stream networks, we found a broad scale spatial pattern in morphotype- and haplotype-defined communities due to regional turnover in the dominant parasite type. This pattern was correlated with elevation, but not with any other environmental factors. Additionally, we found evidence of multiple species within morphotypes, and greater genetic diversity in parasites with hosts limited to in-stream dispersal. Within network parasite prevalence, for at least some parasite taxa, was related to several site-level factors (elevation, snail density and stream depth), and total prevalence decreased from headwaters to main stem. Variation in the distribution and diversity of parasites at the regional scale may reflect differences in the abilities of hosts to disperse across the landscape. Within a stream network, species-environment relationships may counter the effects of downstream dispersal on community structure.

DNA barcodes and new primers for nature's pest controllers: the social wasps

Globally, biodiversity is declining because of anthropogenic pressures, and this could lead to extinction of some species before they are discovered. The loss of insect taxa is of prime concern, given recent reports of significant declines in the populations of many taxa across the globe. Efforts to document biodiversity have met with several challenges, amongst which are the difficulties in using morphological features to discriminate species, especially in insects. DNA barcoding is a rapid and reliable method for species identification and discovery but choosing appropriate primers to amplify the barcode region without co-amplifying contaminants remains a key challenge. We developed and tested a set of primers for PCR amplification of the DNA barcode region of the COI gene in polistine wasps. We tested their efficacy in 36 species of vespid wasps, and the solitary wasp Zethus miniatus Saussure. Samples were obtained from Africa, Americas, Asia, and Europe. The polistine-specific primers successfully amplified the barcode region for all polistines tested, without amplifying any Wolbachia present; they also worked with many species from the other Vespidae wasp subfamilies. The new primers are valuable for the discovery and accurate documentation of polistine wasps in the four continents.

Resolving Food-Web Structure

Food webs are a major focus and organizing theme of ecology, but the data used to assemble them are deficient. Early debates over food-web data focused on taxonomic resolution and completeness, lack of which had produced spurious inferences. Recent data are widely believed to be much better and are used extensively in theoretical and meta-analytic research on network ecology. Confidence in these data rests on the assumptions ( a) that empiricists correctly identified consumers and their foods and ( b) that sampling methods were adequate to detect a near-comprehensive fraction of the trophic interactions between species. Abundant evidence indicates that these assumptions are often invalid, suggesting that most topological food-web data may remain unreliable for inferences about network structure and underlying ecological and evolutionary processes. Morphologically cryptic species are ubiquitous across taxa and regions, and many trophic interactions routinely evade detection by conventional methods. Molecular methods have diagnosed the severity of these problems and are a necessary part of the cure.

Key long-proboscid fly pollinator overlooked: morphological and molecular analyses reveal a new Prosoeca (Nemestrinidae) species

Long-proboscid nemestrinid flies are keystone pollinators of dozens of Southern African plants and, consequently, their taxonomic status might have important consequences for insect and plant conservation. We focus on Prosoeca peringueyi, considered to be a single, morphologically variable species, upon which a guild of ~28 plants in the winter rainfall region depends for pollination. We quantified morphological variation and established whether it was associated with genetic variation within and among sites. Phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial COI gene revealed two well-supported clades. One clade contains long-proboscid individuals that conform morphologically to the holotype of P. peringueyi. The sister clade contains individuals that frequently occur sympatrically with P. peringueyi and have shorter proboscides, with additional diagnostic characters that set it apart from P. peringueyi. A haplotype analysis based on nuclear ribosomal 28S DNA sequences of a subset of individuals corroborated these results. Based on our results, we propose the recognition of two species: P. peringueyi and Prosoeca torquata sp. nov., which is described here. Future research is required to quantify the interaction networks of these two fly species and the plant guilds with which they interact, to facilitate conservation in the global biodiversity hotspot where they occur.

Phylogeny and species delimitation of the genus Longgenacris and Fruhstorferiola viridifemorata species group (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Melanoplinae) based on molecular evidence

Phylogenetic positions of the genus Longgenacris and one of its members, i.e. L. rufiantennus are controversial. The species boundaries within both of L. rufiantennus+Fruhstorferiola tonkinensis and F. viridifemorata species groups are unclear. In this study, we explored the phylogenetic positions of the genus Longgenacris and the species L. rufiantennus and the relationships among F. viridifemorata group based on the 658-base fragment of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) barcode and the complete sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS2) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. The phylogenies were reconstructed in maximum likelihood framework using IQ-TREE. K2P distances were used to assess the overlap range between intraspecific variation and interspecific divergence. Phylogenetic species concept and NJ tree, K2P distance, the statistical parsimony network as well as the generalized mixed Yule coalescent model (GMYC) were employed to delimitate the species boundaries in L. rufiantennus+F. tonkinensis and F. viridifemorata species groups. The results demonstrated that the genus Longgenacris should be placed in the subfamily Melanoplinae but not Catantopinae, and L. rufiantennus should be a member of the genus Fruhstorferiola but not Longgenacris. Species boundary delimitation confirmed the presence of oversplitting in L. rufiantennus+F. tonkinensis and F. viridifemorata species groups and suggested that each group should be treated as a single species.

Using DNA-barcoded Malaise trap samples to measure impact of a geothermal energy project on the biodiversity of a Costa Rican old-growth rain forest

We report one year (2013-2014) of biomonitoring an insect community in a tropical old-growth rain forest, during construction of an industrial-level geothermal electricity project. This is the first-year reaction by the species-rich insect biodiversity; six subsequent years are being analyzed now. The site is on the margin of a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site, Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), in northwestern Costa Rica. This biomonitoring is part of Costa Rica's ongoing efforts to sustainably retain its wild biodiversity through biodevelopmental integration with its societies. Essential tools are geothermal engineering needs, entomological knowledge, insect species-rich forest, government-NGO integration, common sense, DNA barcoding for species-level identification, and Malaise traps. This research is tailored for integration with its society at the product level. We combine an academic view with on-site engineering decisions. This biomonitoring requires alpha-level DNA barcoding combined with centuries of morphology-based entomological taxonomy and ecology. Not all desired insect community analyses are performed; they are for data from subsequent years combined with this year. We provide enough analysis to be used by both guilds now. This biomonitoring has shown, for the first year, that the geothermal project impacts only the biodiversity within a zone less than 50 m from the project margin.

Revision of Telothyria van der Wulp (Diptera: Tachinidae) and twenty-five new species from Area de Conservación Guanacaste in northwestern Costa Rica with a key to Mesoamerican species

Background

We describe 25 new species in the genus Telothyria van der Wulp, 1890 from Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica. All species herein described were reared from an ongoing inventory of wild-caught caterpillars spanning two families (Lepidoptera: Crambidae, and Tortricidae). Our study provides a concise description of each new species using morphology, life history, molecular data, and photographic documentation; a redescription of the genus, and its type species as well as a revised key to species of Telothyria occurring in the Mesoamerican region. We also suggest seven new synonymies resulting in 11 new combinations.

New information

The following 25 new species of Telothyria are described: T.aidanisp. n., T.alexanderisp. n., T.auranticrussp. n., T.auriolussp. n., T.bicuspidatasp. n., T.carolinacanoaesp. n., T.clavatasp. n., T.cristatasp. n., T.diniamartinezaesp. n., T.duniagarciaesp. n., T.duvalierbricenoisp. n., T.eldaarayaesp. n., T.erythropygasp. n., T.fimbriatasp. n., T.fulgidasp. n., T.gloriashihezaraesp. n., T.griseasp. n., T.harryramirezisp. n., T.incisasp. n., T.manuelpereiraisp. n., T.obscurasp. n., T.omissasp. n., T.osvaldoespinozaisp. n., T.peltatasp. n., and T.ricardocaleroisp. n.

The following are proposed by Fleming & Wood as new generic synonyms of Telothyria: Comatacta Coquillett Syn. n., Floradalia Thompson Syn. n., Ptilomyia Curran Syn. n., Ptilomyiopsis Townsend Syn. n., Ptilomyoides Curran Syn. n., EuptilomyiaSyn. n., Eutelothyria Townsend Syn. n.

The following new combinations are proposed as a result of the new synonymies: Telothyriabequaerti (Curran, 1925) Comb. n., Telothyriacruenta (Giglio-Tos, 1893) Comb. n., Telothyriafrontalis (Townsend, 1939) Comb. n., Telothyriainsularis (Curran, 1927) Comb. n., Telothyriaitaquaquecetubae (Townsend, 1931) Comb. n., Telothyriamajor (Thompson, 1963) Comb. n., Telothyriamicropalpus (Curran, 1925) Comb. n., Telothyriaminor (Thompson, 1963) Comb. n., Telothyrianautlana (Townsend, 1908) Comb. n., Telothyriaplumata (Curran, 1925) Comb. n., Telothyriatrinitatis (Thompson, 1963) Comb. n., Telothyriavariegata (Fabricius, 1805) Comb. n.Muscatricincta Fabricius is synonymized under Telothyriavariegata Fabricius, Syn. n.

Telothyriaschineri Fleming & Wood nom. n. is proposed as a replacement name for Miltogrammabrevipennis Schiner.

Additionally we provide redescriptions of two previously named species: the type species Telothyriacupreiventris (van der Wulp) due to its being the type species, and Telothyriarelicta (van der Wulp) due to its having been reared as an outcome of the inventory.

Dynamics of a host-parasitoid interaction clarified by modelling and DNA sequencing

It has been hypothesised that the 2-year oscillations in abundance of Xestia moths are mediated by interactions with 1-year Ophion parasitoid wasps. We tested this hypothesis by modelling a 35-year time series of Xestia and Ophion from Northern Finland. Additionally, we used DNA barcoding to ascertain the species diversity of Ophion and targeted amplicon sequencing of their gut contents to confirm their larval hosts. Modelling of the time-series data strongly supported the hypothesised host-parasitoid dynamics and that periodic occurrence of Xestia moths is mediated by Ophion. DNA barcodes revealed that Ophion included five species rather than just one while targeted amplicon sequencing verified that Ophion does parasitise Xestia. At least one Ophion species employs 1-year Syngrapha interrogationis as an alternate host, but it did not detectably affect Xestia-Ophion dynamics. We also demonstrate the previously unrecognised complexity of this system due to cryptic parasitoid diversity.

A new genus and new species in the tribe Uramyini (Diptera: Tachinidae) from Area de Conservación Guanacaste in northwestern Costa Rica

Background

We describe one new genus and its one new species from Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica. Our study provides a concise description of this new species using morphology, life history, molecular data and photographic documentation.

New information

Chorotegamyiagen. n. is described, along with its type species, Chorotegamyiaaureofaciessp. n. A modified key to the Uramyini is given to further elucidate the tribe.

DNA barcoding and phylogenetic analysis of leafhoppers associated with Aster Yellow disease on China aster, Marigold and Chrysanthemum

The Cicadellidae (Auchenorrhyncha: Hemiptera) are important agricultural, horticultural and ornamental pests. But it is very difficult to define nymphs and female adults using morphological characteristics. This research was aimed at understanding the variety of leafhoppers species and defining the prospective cause of the aster-yellow disease in China Aster, Marigold and Chrysanthemum. Two surveys were conducted in and around Pune, Maharashtra and Bengaluru, Karnataka between November 2016 and February 2017. The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) region marker was used in the species diagnosis and genetic diversity research. Through the use of mtCOI molecular marker eight different leafhoppers species were identified as Sogatella furcifera, Homalodisca insolita, Amrasca biguttula, Balclutha incise and Balclutha abdominalis and Japanagallia trifurcate. Whereas at genus level identified as Toya, Empoasca, Perkinsiella, Hishimonus, Tambocerus, Phaconeura, Curena, Psammotettix and Graphocophala species. These results are strongly corroborated with morphological identification. On the basis of multiple sequence alignment of the mtCOI gene, a species phylogenetic tree with the highest likelihood was drawn. All the leafhopper species clustered together in accordance with the species data collected from the database of the different geographic regions from the NCBI GenBank and Barcode of Life (BOLD). Such results suggest that it is important to use both molecular and morphological methods to ensure accurate identification of organisms. To conclude, this research contributes valuable knowledge to molecular biology and recognizes leafhopper species that serve as major phytoplasma vectors.

Increasing the phylogenetic coverage for understanding broad-scale diversity gradients

Despite decades of scientific effort, there is still no consensus on the determinants of broad-scale gradients of animal diversity. We argue that general drivers of diversity are unlikely to be found among the narrowly defined taxa which are typically analyzed in studies of broad-scale diversity gradients because ecological niches evolve largely conservatively. This causes constraints in the use of available niche space leading to systematic differences in diversity gradients among taxa. We instead advocate studies of phylogenetically diverse animal communities along broad environmental gradients. Such multi-taxa communities are less constrained in resource use and diversification and may be better targets for testing major classical hypotheses on diversity gradients. Besides increasing the spatial scale in analyses, expanding the phylogenetic coverage may be a second way to achieve higher levels of generality in studies of broad-scale diversity gradients.

Reappraising plastid markers of the red algae for phylogenetic community ecology in the genomic era

Selection of appropriate genetic markers to quantify phylogenetic diversity is crucial for community ecology studies. Yet, systematic evaluation of marker genes for this purpose is scarcely done. Recently, the combined effort of phycologists has produced a rich plastid genome resource with taxonomic representation spanning all of the major lineages of the red algae (Rhodophyta). In this proof-of-concept study, we leveraged this resource by developing and applying a phylogenomic strategy to seek candidate plastid markers suitable for phylogenetic community analysis. We ranked the core genes of 107 published plastid genomes based on various sequence-derived properties and their tree distance to plastid genome phylogenies. The resulting ranking revealed that the most widely used marker, rbcL, is not necessarily the optimal marker, while other promising markers might have been overlooked. We designed and tested PCR primers for several candidate marker genes, and successfully amplified one of them, rpoC1, in a taxonomically broad set of red algal specimens. We suggest that our general marker identification methodology and the rpoC1 primers will be useful to the phycological community for investigating the biodiversity and community ecology of the red algae.

Molecular phylogeny and species delimitation of the genus Dicerapanorpa (Mecoptera: Panorpidae)

Given that species is the fundamental unit in systematic biology, rigorous species delimitation is crucial for taxonomic studies, yet routine species delimitation remains an ongoing challenge in the taxonomic practice of insects. The two-horned scorpionfly Dicerapanorpa is a small genus in Panorpidae (Mecoptera) endemic to the Qinling-Bashan and Hengduan mountains, a biodiversity hotspot. However, species of Dicerapanorpa are difficult to delineate owing to marked intraspecific variation and interspecific similarity. Here, we investigate the diversity and species boundaries of Dicerapanorpa using an integrative approach based on DNA barcoding, morphological, geometric morphometric and molecular phylogenetic analyses. This integrative analyses confirmed the 13 described species of Dicerapanorpa and revealed three new species: Dicerapanorpa lativalva sp. nov., Dicerapanorpa hualongshana sp. nov. and Dicerapanorpa minshana sp. nov. Most molecular operational taxonomic units are in congruence with morphological clusters. Possible reasons for several discordances in Dicerapanorpa are tentatively discussed.

Molecular biogeography and host relations of a parasitoid fly

Successful geographic range expansion by parasites and parasitoids may also require host range expansion. Thus, the evolutionary advantages of host specialization may trade off against the ability to exploit new host species encountered in new geographic regions. Here, we use molecular techniques and confirmed host records to examine biogeography, population divergence, and host flexibility of the parasitoid fly, Ormia ochracea (Bigot). Gravid females of this fly find their cricket hosts acoustically by eavesdropping on male cricket calling songs; these songs vary greatly among the known host species of crickets. Using both nuclear and mitochondrial genetic markers, we (a) describe the geographical distribution and subdivision of genetic variation in O. ochracea from across the continental United States, the Mexican states of Sonora and Oaxaca, and populations introduced to Hawaii; (b) demonstrate that the distribution of genetic variation among fly populations is consistent with a single widespread species with regional host specialization, rather than locally differentiated cryptic species; (c) identify the more-probable source populations for the flies introduced to the Hawaiian islands; (d) examine genetic variation and substructure within Hawaii; (e) show that among-population geographic, genetic, and host song distances are all correlated; and (f) discuss specialization and lability in host-finding behavior in light of the diversity of cricket songs serving as host cues in different geographically separate populations.