1
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Samuel H, Drilleau M, Rivoldini A, Xu Z, Huang Q, Garcia RF, Lekić V, Irving JCE, Badro J, Lognonné PH, Connolly JAD, Kawamura T, Gudkova T, Banerdt WB. Geophysical evidence for an enriched molten silicate layer above Mars's core. Nature 2023; 622:712-717. [PMID: 37880437 PMCID: PMC10600000 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06601-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
The detection of deep reflected S waves on Mars inferred a core size of 1,830 ± 40 km (ref. 1), requiring light-element contents that are incompatible with experimental petrological constraints. This estimate assumes a compositionally homogeneous Martian mantle, at odds with recent measurements of anomalously slow propagating P waves diffracted along the core-mantle boundary2. An alternative hypothesis is that Mars's mantle is heterogeneous as a consequence of an early magma ocean that solidified to form a basal layer enriched in iron and heat-producing elements. Such enrichment results in the formation of a molten silicate layer above the core, overlain by a partially molten layer3. Here we show that this structure is compatible with all geophysical data, notably (1) deep reflected and diffracted mantle seismic phases, (2) weak shear attenuation at seismic frequency and (3) Mars's dissipative nature at Phobos tides. The core size in this scenario is 1,650 ± 20 km, implying a density of 6.5 g cm-3, 5-8% larger than previous seismic estimates, and can be explained by fewer, and less abundant, alloying light elements than previously required, in amounts compatible with experimental and cosmochemical constraints. Finally, the layered mantle structure requires external sources to generate the magnetic signatures recorded in Mars's crust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri Samuel
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France.
| | - Mélanie Drilleau
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace ISAE-SUPAERO, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Zongbo Xu
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Quancheng Huang
- Department of Geophysics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
- University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Raphaël F Garcia
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace ISAE-SUPAERO, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | - James Badro
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Philippe H Lognonné
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | | | - Taichi Kawamura
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Tamara Gudkova
- Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - William B Banerdt
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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2
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Liu W, Zhang Y, Tissot FLH, Avice G, Ye Z, Yin QZ. I/Pu reveals Earth mainly accreted from volatile-poor differentiated planetesimals. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg9213. [PMID: 37406123 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg9213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
The observation that mid-ocean ridge basalts had ~3× higher iodine/plutonium ratios (inferred from xenon isotopes) compared to ocean island basalts holds critical insights into Earth's accretion. Understanding whether this difference stems from core formation alone or heterogeneous accretion is, however, hindered by the unknown geochemical behavior of plutonium during core formation. Here, we use first-principles molecular dynamics to quantify the metal-silicate partition coefficients of iodine and plutonium during core formation and find that both iodine and plutonium partly partition into metal liquid. Using multistage core formation modeling, we show that core formation alone is unlikely to explain the iodine/plutonium difference between mantle reservoirs. Instead, our results reveal a heterogeneous accretion history, whereby predominant accretion of volatile-poor differentiated planetesimals was followed by a secondary phase of accretion of volatile-rich undifferentiated meteorites. This implies that Earth inherited part of its volatiles, including its water, from late accretion of chondrites, with a notable carbonaceous chondrite contribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiyi Liu
- The Isotoparium, Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Yigang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Computational Geodynamics, College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - François L H Tissot
- The Isotoparium, Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Guillaume Avice
- Université Paris Cité, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Zhilin Ye
- Key Laboratory of High-Temperature and High-Pressure Study of the Earth's Interior, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, Guizhou 550081, China
| | - Qing-Zhu Yin
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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3
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Onyett IJ, Schiller M, Makhatadze GV, Deng Z, Johansen A, Bizzarro M. Silicon isotope constraints on terrestrial planet accretion. Nature 2023; 619:539-544. [PMID: 37316662 PMCID: PMC10356600 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06135-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the nature and origin of the precursor material to terrestrial planets is key to deciphering the mechanisms and timescales of planet formation1. Nucleosynthetic variability among rocky Solar System bodies can trace the composition of planetary building blocks2-5. Here we report the nucleosynthetic composition of silicon (μ30Si), the most abundant refractory planet-building element, in primitive and differentiated meteorites to identify terrestrial planet precursors. Inner Solar System differentiated bodies, including Mars, record μ30Si deficits of -11.0 ± 3.2 parts per million to -5.8 ± 3.0 parts per million whereas non-carbonaceous and carbonaceous chondrites show μ30Si excesses from 7.4 ± 4.3 parts per million to 32.8 ± 2.0 parts per million relative to Earth. This establishes that chondritic bodies are not planetary building blocks. Rather, material akin to early-formed differentiated asteroids must represent a major planetary constituent. The μ30Si values of asteroidal bodies correlate with their accretion ages, reflecting progressive admixing of a μ30Si-rich outer Solar System material to an initially μ30Si-poor inner disk. Mars' formation before chondrite parent bodies is necessary to avoid incorporation of μ30Si-rich material. In contrast, Earth's μ30Si composition necessitates admixing of 26 ± 9 per cent of μ30Si-rich outer Solar System material to its precursors. The μ30Si compositions of Mars and proto-Earth are consistent with their rapid formation by collisional growth and pebble accretion less than three million years after Solar System formation. Finally, Earth's nucleosynthetic composition for s-process sensitive (molybdenum and zirconium) and siderophile (nickel) tracers are consistent with pebble accretion when volatility-driven processes during accretion and the Moon-forming impact are carefully evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac J Onyett
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Martin Schiller
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Georgy V Makhatadze
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Zhengbin Deng
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anders Johansen
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Lund Observatory, Department of Astronomy and Theoretical Physics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Martin Bizzarro
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université de Paris Cité, Paris, France
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4
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Young ED, Shahar A, Schlichting HE. Earth shaped by primordial H 2 atmospheres. Nature 2023; 616:306-311. [PMID: 37045923 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-05823-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Earth's water, intrinsic oxidation state and metal core density are fundamental chemical features of our planet. Studies of exoplanets provide a useful context for elucidating the source of these chemical traits. Planet formation and evolution models demonstrate that rocky exoplanets commonly formed with hydrogen-rich envelopes that were lost over time1. These findings suggest that Earth may also have formed from bodies with hydrogen-rich primary atmospheres. Here we use a self-consistent thermodynamic model to show that Earth's water, core density and overall oxidation state can all be sourced to equilibrium between hydrogen-rich primary atmospheres and underlying magma oceans in its progenitor planetary embryos. Water is produced from dry starting materials resembling enstatite chondrites as oxygen from magma oceans reacts with hydrogen. Hydrogen derived from the atmosphere enters the magma ocean and eventually the metal core at equilibrium, causing metal density deficits matching that of Earth. Oxidation of the silicate rocks from solar-like to Earth-like oxygen fugacities also ensues as silicon, along with hydrogen and oxygen, alloys with iron in the cores. Reaction with hydrogen atmospheres and metal-silicate equilibrium thus provides a simple explanation for fundamental features of Earth's geochemistry that is consistent with rocky planet formation across the Galaxy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward D Young
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Anat Shahar
- Carnegie Institution for Science, Earth and Planets Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Hilke E Schlichting
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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5
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Gao L, Liu S, Cawood PA, Hu F, Wang J, Sun G, Hu Y. Oxidation of Archean upper mantle caused by crustal recycling. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3283. [PMID: 35672309 PMCID: PMC9174474 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30886-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The redox evolution of Archean upper mantle impacted mantle melting and the nature of chemical equilibrium between mantle, ocean and atmosphere of the early Earth. Yet, the origin of these variations in redox remain controversial. Here we show that a global compilation of ∼3.8-2.5 Ga basalts can be subdivided into group B-1, showing modern mid-ocean ridge basalt-like features ((Nb/La)PM ≥ 0.75), and B-2, which are similar to contemporary island arc-related basalts ((Nb/La)PM < 0.75). Our V-Ti redox proxy indicates a more reducing upper mantle, and the results of both ambient and modified mantle obtained from B-1 and B-2 samples, respectively, exhibit a ∼1.0 log unit increase in their temporal evolution for most cratons. Increases in mantle oxygen fugacity are coincident with the changes in basalt Th/Nb ratios and Nd isotope ratios, indicating that crustal recycling played a crucial role, and this likely occurred either via plate subduction or lithospheric drips. The basalt V-Ti redox proxy indicates that both of the Archean ambient and modified mantle exhibit a ~1.0 log unit increase in their evolution for most cratons, possibly derived by widespread crustal recycling.
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6
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Yokoo S, Hirose K, Tagawa S, Morard G, Ohishi Y. Stratification in planetary cores by liquid immiscibility in Fe-S-H. Nat Commun 2022; 13:644. [PMID: 35115522 PMCID: PMC8813981 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28274-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Liquid-liquid immiscibility has been widely observed in iron alloy systems at ambient pressure and is important for the structure and dynamics in iron cores of rocky planets. While such previously known liquid immiscibility has been demonstrated to disappear at relatively low pressures, here we report immiscible S(±Si,O)-rich liquid and H(±C)-rich liquid above ~20 GPa, corresponding to conditions of the Martian core. Mars’ cosmochemically estimated core composition is likely in the miscibility gap, and the separation of two immiscible liquids could have driven core convection and stable stratification, which explains the formation and termination of the Martian planetary magnetic field. In addition, we observed liquid immiscibility in Fe-S-H(±Si,O,C) at least to 118 GPa, suggesting that it can occur in the Earth’s topmost outer core and form a low-velocity layer below the core-mantle boundary. Yokoo et al. find the liquid immiscibility between H-rich and S-rich liquids Fe above 20 GPa. The separation of immiscible liquids could explain the disappearance of Mars’ magnetic field and the formation of low-velocity layer atop the Earth’s core.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunpei Yokoo
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Kei Hirose
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shoh Tagawa
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Guillaume Morard
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, Université Gustave-Eiffel, ISTerre, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Yasuo Ohishi
- Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, SPring-8, Sayo, Japan
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7
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Sakuraba H, Kurokawa H, Genda H, Ohta K. Numerous chondritic impactors and oxidized magma ocean set Earth's volatile depletion. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20894. [PMID: 34686749 PMCID: PMC8536732 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99240-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Earth’s surface environment is largely influenced by its budget of major volatile elements: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and hydrogen (H). Although the volatiles on Earth are thought to have been delivered by chondritic materials, the elemental composition of the bulk silicate Earth (BSE) shows depletion in the order of N, C, and H. Previous studies have concluded that non-chondritic materials are needed for this depletion pattern. Here, we model the evolution of the volatile abundances in the atmosphere, oceans, crust, mantle, and core through the accretion history by considering elemental partitioning and impact erosion. We show that the BSE depletion pattern can be reproduced from continuous accretion of chondritic bodies by the partitioning of C into the core and H storage in the magma ocean in the main accretion stage and atmospheric erosion of N in the late accretion stage. This scenario requires a relatively oxidized magma ocean (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$f_{{\mathrm{O}}_2}$$\end{document}fO2 at the iron-wüstite buffer), the dominance of small impactors in the late accretion, and the storage of H and C in oceanic water and carbonate rocks in the late accretion stage, all of which are naturally expected from the formation of an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruka Sakuraba
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Kurokawa
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Hidenori Genda
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Kenji Ohta
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
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8
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Melwani Daswani M, Vance SD, Mayne MJ, Glein CR. A Metamorphic Origin for Europa's Ocean. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2021; 48:e2021GL094143. [PMID: 35865189 PMCID: PMC9286408 DOI: 10.1029/2021gl094143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Europa likely contains an iron-rich metal core. For it to have formed, temperatures within Europa reached ≳ 1250 K. Going up to that temperature, accreted chondritic minerals - for example, carbonates and phyllosilicates - would partially devolatilize. Here, we compute the amounts and compositions of exsolved volatiles. We find that volatiles released from the interior would have carried solutes, redox-sensitive species, and could have generated a carbonic ocean in excess of Europa's present-day hydrosphere, and potentially an early CO 2 atmosphere. No late delivery of cometary water was necessary. Contrasting with prior work, CO 2 could be the most abundant solute in the ocean, followed by Ca 2 + , SO 4 2 - , and HCO 3 - . However, gypsum precipitation going from the seafloor to the ice shell decreases the dissolved S/Cl ratio, such that Cl > S at the shallowest depths, consistent with recently inferred endogenous chlorides at Europa's surface. Gypsum would form a 3-10 km thick sedimentary layer at the seafloor.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Steven D. Vance
- Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | - Matthew J. Mayne
- Department of Earth SciencesStellenbosch UniversityStellenboschSouth Africa
| | - Christopher R. Glein
- Space Science and Engineering DivisionSouthwest Research InstituteSan AntonioTXUSA
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9
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Stähler SC, Khan A, Banerdt WB, Lognonné P, Giardini D, Ceylan S, Drilleau M, Duran AC, Garcia RF, Huang Q, Kim D, Lekic V, Samuel H, Schimmel M, Schmerr N, Sollberger D, Stutzmann É, Xu Z, Antonangeli D, Charalambous C, Davis PM, Irving JCE, Kawamura T, Knapmeyer M, Maguire R, Marusiak AG, Panning MP, Perrin C, Plesa AC, Rivoldini A, Schmelzbach C, Zenhäusern G, Beucler É, Clinton J, Dahmen N, van Driel M, Gudkova T, Horleston A, Pike WT, Plasman M, Smrekar SE. Seismic detection of the martian core. Science 2021; 373:443-448. [PMID: 34437118 DOI: 10.1126/science.abi7730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Clues to a planet's geologic history are contained in its interior structure, particularly its core. We detected reflections of seismic waves from the core-mantle boundary of Mars using InSight seismic data and inverted these together with geodetic data to constrain the radius of the liquid metal core to 1830 ± 40 kilometers. The large core implies a martian mantle mineralogically similar to the terrestrial upper mantle and transition zone but differing from Earth by not having a bridgmanite-dominated lower mantle. We inferred a mean core density of 5.7 to 6.3 grams per cubic centimeter, which requires a substantial complement of light elements dissolved in the iron-nickel core. The seismic core shadow as seen from InSight's location covers half the surface of Mars, including the majority of potentially active regions-e.g., Tharsis-possibly limiting the number of detectable marsquakes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amir Khan
- Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Physik-Institut, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - W Bruce Banerdt
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Philippe Lognonné
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | | | - Savas Ceylan
- Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mélanie Drilleau
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace SUPAERO, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Raphaël F Garcia
- Institut Supérieur de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace SUPAERO, Toulouse, France
| | - Quancheng Huang
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Doyeon Kim
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Vedran Lekic
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Henri Samuel
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | | | - Nicholas Schmerr
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | | | - Éléonore Stutzmann
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Zongbo Xu
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Daniele Antonangeli
- Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR CNRS 7590, Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, IMPMC, Paris, France
| | | | - Paul M Davis
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Taichi Kawamura
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | | | - Ross Maguire
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Angela G Marusiak
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Mark P Panning
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Clément Perrin
- Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique (LPG), UMR CNRS 6112, Université de Nantes, Université d'Angers, France
| | | | | | | | | | - Éric Beucler
- Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique (LPG), UMR CNRS 6112, Université de Nantes, Université d'Angers, France
| | - John Clinton
- Swiss Seismological Service (SED), ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Nikolaj Dahmen
- Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Tamara Gudkova
- Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna Horleston
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - W Thomas Pike
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Matthieu Plasman
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Suzanne E Smrekar
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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10
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Nabiei F, Badro J, Boukaré C, Hébert C, Cantoni M, Borensztajn S, Wehr N, Gillet P. Investigating Magma Ocean Solidification on Earth Through Laser-Heated Diamond Anvil Cell Experiments. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2021; 48:e2021GL092446. [PMID: 34219835 PMCID: PMC8244043 DOI: 10.1029/2021gl092446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
We carried out a series of silicate fractional crystallization experiments at lower mantle pressures using the laser-heated diamond anvil cell. Phase relations and the compositional evolution of the cotectic melt and equilibrium solids along the liquid line of descent were determined and used to assemble the melting phase diagram. In a pyrolitic magma ocean, the first mineral to crystallize in the deep mantle is iron-depleted calcium-bearing bridgmanite. From the phase diagram, we estimate that the initial 33%-36% of the magma ocean will crystallize to form such a buoyant bridgmanite. Substantial calcium solubility in bridgmanite is observed up to 129 GPa, and significantly delays the crystallization of the calcium silicate perovskite phase during magma ocean solidification. Residual melts are strongly iron-enriched as crystallization proceeds, making them denser than any of the coexisting solids at deep mantle conditions, thus supporting the terrestrial basal magma ocean hypothesis (Labrosse et al., 2007).
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhang Nabiei
- Earth and Planetary Science LaboratoryEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
- Electron Spectrometry and Microscopy LaboratoryEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
| | - James Badro
- Earth and Planetary Science LaboratoryEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
- Université de ParisInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisCNRSParisFrance
| | - Charles‐Édouard Boukaré
- Earth and Planetary Science LaboratoryEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
- Université de ParisInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisCNRSParisFrance
| | - Cécile Hébert
- Electron Spectrometry and Microscopy LaboratoryEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Marco Cantoni
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Electron MicroscopyEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
| | | | - Nicolas Wehr
- Université de ParisInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisCNRSParisFrance
| | - Philippe Gillet
- Earth and Planetary Science LaboratoryEPFLLausanneSwitzerland
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11
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Suer TA, Siebert J, Remusat L, Day JMD, Borensztajn S, Doisneau B, Fiquet G. Reconciling metal-silicate partitioning and late accretion in the Earth. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2913. [PMID: 34006864 PMCID: PMC8131616 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23137-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly siderophile elements (HSE), including platinum, provide powerful geochemical tools for studying planet formation. Late accretion of chondritic components to Earth after core formation has been invoked as the main source of mantle HSE. However, core formation could also have contributed to the mantle's HSE content. Here we present measurements of platinum metal-silicate partitioning coefficients, obtained from laser-heated diamond anvil cell experiments, which demonstrate that platinum partitioning into metal is lower at high pressures and temperatures. Consequently, the mantle was likely enriched in platinum immediately following core-mantle differentiation. Core formation models that incorporate these results and simultaneously account for collateral geochemical constraints, lead to excess platinum in the mantle. A subsequent process such as iron exsolution or sulfide segregation is therefore required to remove excess platinum and to explain the mantle's modern HSE signature. A vestige of this platinum-enriched mantle can potentially account for 186Os-enriched ocean island basalt lavas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry-Ann Suer
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France. .,Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Julien Siebert
- Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, UMR CNRS 7154, Paris, France.,Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Remusat
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - James M D Day
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | - Beatrice Doisneau
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Guillaume Fiquet
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, UMR CNRS 7590, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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12
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Experimental evidence for hydrogen incorporation into Earth's core. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2588. [PMID: 33976113 PMCID: PMC8113257 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22035-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen is one of the possible alloying elements in the Earth's core, but its siderophile (iron-loving) nature is debated. Here we experimentally examined the partitioning of hydrogen between molten iron and silicate melt at 30-60 gigapascals and 3100-4600 kelvin. We find that hydrogen has a metal/silicate partition coefficient DH ≥ 29 and is therefore strongly siderophile at conditions of core formation. Unless water was delivered only in the final stage of accretion, core formation scenarios suggest that 0.3-0.6 wt% H was incorporated into the core, leaving a relatively small residual H2O concentration in silicates. This amount of H explains 30-60% of the density deficit and sound velocity excess of the outer core relative to pure iron. Our results also suggest that hydrogen may be an important constituent in the metallic cores of any terrestrial planet or moon having a mass in excess of ~10% of the Earth.
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13
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The niobium and tantalum concentration in the mantle constrains the composition of Earth's primordial magma ocean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:27893-27898. [PMID: 33106398 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2007982117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The bulk silicate Earth (BSE), and all its sampleable reservoirs, have a subchondritic niobium-to-tantalum ratio (Nb/Ta). Because both elements are refractory, and Nb/Ta is fairly constant across chondrite groups, this can only be explained by a preferential sequestration of Nb relative to Ta in a hidden (unsampled) reservoir. Experiments have shown that Nb becomes more siderophile than Ta under very reducing conditions, leading the way for the accepted hypothesis that Earth's core could have stripped sufficient amounts of Nb during its formation to account for the subchondritic signature of the BSE. Consequently, this suggestion has been used as an argument that Earth accreted and differentiated, for most of its history, under very reducing conditions. Here, we present a series of metal-silicate partitioning experiments of Nb and Ta in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell, at pressure and temperature conditions directly comparable to those of core formation; we find that Nb is more siderophile than Ta under any conditions relevant to a deep magma ocean, confirming that BSE's missing Nb is in the core. However, multistage core formation modeling only allows for moderately reducing or oxidizing accretionary conditions, ruling out the need for very reducing conditions, which lead to an overdepletion of Nb from the mantle (and a low Nb/Ta ratio) that is incompatible with geochemical observations. Earth's primordial magma ocean cannot have contained less than 2% or more than 18% FeO since the onset of core formation.
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14
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Low thermal conductivity of iron-silicon alloys at Earth's core conditions with implications for the geodynamo. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3332. [PMID: 32620830 PMCID: PMC7335046 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17106-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Earth’s core is composed of iron (Fe) alloyed with light elements, e.g., silicon (Si). Its thermal conductivity critically affects Earth’s thermal structure, evolution, and dynamics, as it controls the magnitude of thermal and compositional sources required to sustain a geodynamo over Earth’s history. Here we directly measured thermal conductivities of solid Fe and Fe–Si alloys up to 144 GPa and 3300 K. 15 at% Si alloyed in Fe substantially reduces its conductivity by about 2 folds at 132 GPa and 3000 K. An outer core with 15 at% Si would have a conductivity of about 20 W m−1 K−1, lower than pure Fe at similar pressure–temperature conditions. This suggests a lower minimum heat flow, around 3 TW, across the core–mantle boundary than previously expected, and thus less thermal energy needed to operate the geodynamo. Our results provide key constraints on inner core age that could be older than two billion-years. Thermal conductivity of Earth’s core affects Earth’s thermal structure, evolution and dynamics. Based on thermal conductivity measurements of iron–silicon alloys at high pressure and temperature conditions, the authors here propose Earth’s inner core could be older than previously expected.
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15
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Abstract
Earth's core is likely the largest reservoir of carbon (C) in the planet, but its C abundance has been poorly constrained because measurements of carbon's preference for core versus mantle materials at the pressures and temperatures of core formation are lacking. Using metal-silicate partitioning experiments in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell, we show that carbon becomes significantly less siderophile as pressures and temperatures increase to those expected in a deep magma ocean during formation of Earth's core. Based on a multistage model of core formation, the core likely contains a maximum of 0.09(4) to 0.20(10) wt% C, making carbon a negligible contributor to the core's composition and density. However, this accounts for ∼80 to 90% of Earth's overall carbon inventory, which totals 370(150) to 740(370) ppm. The bulk Earth's carbon/sulfur ratio is best explained by the delivery of most of Earth's volatiles from carbonaceous chondrite-like precursors.
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16
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Schiller M, Bizzarro M, Siebert J. Iron isotope evidence for very rapid accretion and differentiation of the proto-Earth. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaay7604. [PMID: 32095530 PMCID: PMC7015677 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay7604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Nucleosynthetic isotope variability among solar system objects provides insights into the accretion history of terrestrial planets. We report on the nucleosynthetic Fe isotope composition (μ54Fe) of various meteorites and show that the only material matching the terrestrial composition is CI (Ivuna-type) carbonaceous chondrites, which represent the bulk solar system composition. All other meteorites, including carbonaceous, ordinary, and enstatite chondrites, record excesses in μ54Fe. This observation is inconsistent with protracted growth of Earth by stochastic collisional accretion, which predicts a μ54Fe value reflecting a mixture of the various meteorite parent bodies. Instead, our results suggest a rapid accretion and differentiation of Earth during the ~5-million year disk lifetime, when the volatile-rich CI-like material is accreted to the proto-Sun via the inner disk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schiller
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5–7, DK-1350 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin Bizzarro
- Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5–7, DK-1350 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Julien Siebert
- Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75005 Paris, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
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17
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Dalou C, Füri E, Deligny C, Piani L, Caumon MC, Laumonier M, Boulliung J, Edén M. Redox control on nitrogen isotope fractionation during planetary core formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:14485-14494. [PMID: 31262822 PMCID: PMC6642344 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1820719116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The present-day nitrogen isotopic compositions of Earth's surficial (15N-enriched) and deep reservoirs (15N-depleted) differ significantly. This distribution can neither be explained by modern mantle degassing nor recycling via subduction zones. As the effect of planetary differentiation on the behavior of N isotopes is poorly understood, we experimentally determined N-isotopic fractionations during metal-silicate partitioning (analogous to planetary core formation) over a large range of oxygen fugacities (ΔIW -3.1 < logfO2 < ΔIW -0.5, where ΔIW is the logarithmic difference between experimental oxygen fugacity [fO2] conditions and that imposed by the coexistence of iron and wüstite) at 1 GPa and 1,400 °C. We developed an in situ analytical method to measure the N-elemental and -isotopic compositions of experimental run products composed of Fe-C-N metal alloys and basaltic melts. Our results show substantial N-isotopic fractionations between metal alloys and silicate glasses, i.e., from -257 ± 22‰ to -49 ± 1‰ over 3 log units of fO2 These large fractionations under reduced conditions can be explained by the large difference between N bonding in metal alloys (Fe-N) and in silicate glasses (as molecular N2 and NH complexes). We show that the δ15N value of the silicate mantle could have increased by ∼20‰ during core formation due to N segregation into the core.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Dalou
- Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, UMR 7358, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 54501 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France;
| | - Evelyn Füri
- Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, UMR 7358, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 54501 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Cécile Deligny
- Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, UMR 7358, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 54501 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Laurette Piani
- Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, UMR 7358, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 54501 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France
| | | | - Mickael Laumonier
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Observatoire Physique du Globe de Clermont-Ferrand, Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Julien Boulliung
- Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques, UMR 7358, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 54501 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Mattias Edén
- Physical Chemistry Division, Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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18
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YOUNG ED, SHAHAR A, NIMMO F, SCHLICHTING HE, SCHAUBLE EA, TANG H, LABIDI J. Near-equilibrium isotope fractionation during planetesimal evaporation. ICARUS 2019; 323:1-15. [PMID: 30739951 PMCID: PMC6364317 DOI: 10.1016/j.icarus.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Silicon and Mg in differentiated rocky bodies exhibit heavy isotope enrichments that have been attributed to evaporation of partially or entirely molten planetesimals. We evaluate the mechanisms of planetesimal evaporation in the early solar system and the conditions that controled attendant isotope fractionations. Energy balance at the surface of a body accreted within ~1 Myr of CAI formation and heated from within by 26Al decay results in internal temperatures exceeding the silicate solidus, producing a transient magma ocean with a thin surface boundary layer of order < 1 meter that would be subject to foundering. Bodies that are massive enough to form magma oceans by radioisotope decay (≥ 0.1% M ⊕) can retain hot rock vapor even in the absence of ambient nebular gas. We find that a steady-state rock vapor forms within minutes to hours and results from a balance between rates of magma evaporation and atmospheric escape. Vapor pressure buildup adjacent to the surfaces of the evaporating magmas would have inevitably led to an approach to equilibrium isotope partitioning between the vapor phase and the silicate melt. Numerical simulations of this near-equilibrium evaporation process for a body with a radius of ~ 700 km yield a steady-state far-field vapor pressure of 10-8 bar and a vapor pressure at the surface of 10-4 bar, corresponding to 95% saturation. Approaches to equilibrium isotope fractionation between vapor and melt should have been the norm during planet formation due to the formation of steady-state rock vapor atmospheres and/or the presence of protostellar gas. We model the Si and Mg isotopic composition of bulk Earth as a consequence of accretion of planetesimals that evaporated subject to the conditions described above. The results show that the best fit to bulk Earth is for a carbonaceous chondrite-like source material with about 12% loss of Mg and 15% loss of Si resulting from near-equilibrium evaporation into the solar protostellar disk of H2 on timescales of 104 to 105 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. D. YOUNG
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - A. SHAHAR
- Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington DC, USA
| | - F. NIMMO
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz CA, USA
| | - H. E. SCHLICHTING
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - E. A. SCHAUBLE
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - H. TANG
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - J. LABIDI
- Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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19
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Grewal DS, Dasgupta R, Holmes AK, Costin G, Li Y, Tsuno K. The fate of nitrogen during core-mantle separation on Earth. GEOCHIMICA ET COSMOCHIMICA ACTA 2019; 251:87-115. [PMID: 35153302 PMCID: PMC8833147 DOI: 10.1016/j.gca.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogen, the most dominant constituent of Earth's atmosphere, is critical for the habitability and existence of life on our planet. However, its distribution between Earth's major reservoirs, which must be largely influenced by the accretion and differentiation processes during its formative years, is poorly known. Sequestration into the metallic core, along with volatility related loss pre- and post-accretion, could be a critical process that can explain the depletion of nitrogen in the Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE) relative to the primitive chondrites. However, the relative effect of different thermodynamic parameters on the alloy-silicate partitioning behavior of nitrogen is still poorly known. Here we present equilibrium partitioning data of N between alloy and silicate melt ( D N alloy / silicate ) from 67 new high pressure (P = 1-6 GPa)-temperature (T = 1500-2200 °C) experiments under graphite saturated conditions at a wide range of oxygen fugacity (logfO2 ~ΔIW - 4.2 to - 0.8), mafic to ultramafic silicate melt compositions (NBO/T = 0.4 to 2.2), and varying chemical composition of the alloy melts (S and Si contents of 0-32.1 wt.% and 0-3.1 wt.%, respectively). Under relatively oxidizing conditions (~ΔIW - 2.2 to - 0.8) nitrogen acts as a siderophile element ( D N alloy / silicate between 1.1 and 52), where D N alloy / silicate decreases with decrease in fO2 and increase in T, and increases with increase in P and NBO/T. Under these conditions D N alloy / silicate remains largely unaffected between S-free conditions and up to ~17 wt.% S content in the alloy melt, and then drops off at > ~20 wt.% S content in the alloy melt. Under increasingly reduced conditions (< ~ ΔIW - 2.2), N becomes increasingly lithophile ( D N alloy / silicate between 0.003 and 0.5) with D N alloy / silicate decreasing with decrease in fO2 and increase in T. At these conditions fO2, along with Si content of the alloy under the most reduced conditions (< ~ΔIW - 3.0), is the controlling parameter with T playing a secondary role, while, P, NBO/T, and S content of the alloy have minimal effects. A multiple linear least-squares regression parametrization for D N alloy / silicate based on the results of this study and previous studies suggests, in agreement with the experimental data, that fO2 (represented by Si content of the alloy melt and FeO content of the silicate melt), followed by T, has the strongest control on D N alloy / silicate . Based on our modeling, to match the present-day BSE N content, impactors that brought N must have been moderately to highly oxidized. If N bearing impactors were reduced, and/or there was significant disequilibrium core formation, then the BSE would be too N-rich and another mechanism for N loss, such as atmospheric loss, would be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damanveer S. Grewal
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, MS 126, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Rajdeep Dasgupta
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, MS 126, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Alexandra K. Holmes
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, MS 126, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Gelu Costin
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, MS 126, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Yuan Li
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, MS 126, Houston, TX 77005, USA
- Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510460, China
| | - Kyusei Tsuno
- Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, MS 126, Houston, TX 77005, USA
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20
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Schaefer L, Elkins-Tanton LT. Magma oceans as a critical stage in the tectonic development of rocky planets. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2018; 376:rsta.2018.0109. [PMID: 30275166 PMCID: PMC6189560 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2018.0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Magma oceans are a common result of the high degree of heating that occurs during planet formation. It is thought that almost all of the large rocky bodies in the Solar System went through at least one magma ocean phase. In this paper, we review some of the ways in which magma ocean models for the Earth, Moon and Mars match present-day observations of mantle reservoirs, internal structure and primordial crusts, and then we present new calculations for the oxidation state of the mantle produced during the magma ocean phase. The crystallization of magma oceans probably leads to a massive mantle overturn that may set up a stably stratified mantle. This may lead to significant delays or total prevention of plate tectonics on some planets. We review recent models that may help alleviate the mantle stability issue and lead to earlier onset of plate tectonics.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Earth dynamics and the development of plate tectonics'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Schaefer
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Linda T Elkins-Tanton
- School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
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21
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Iron diapirs entrain silicates to the core and initiate thermochemical plumes. Nat Commun 2018; 9:71. [PMID: 29302028 PMCID: PMC5754369 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02503-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Segregation of the iron core from rocky silicates is a massive evolutionary event in planetary accretion, yet the process of metal segregation remains obscure, due to obstacles in simulating the extreme physical properties of liquid iron and silicates at finite length scales. We present new experimental results studying gravitational instability of an emulsified liquid gallium layer, initially at rest at the interface between two glucose solutions. Metal settling coats liquid metal drops with a film of low density material. The emulsified metal pond descends as a coherent Rayleigh-Taylor instability with a trailing fluid-filled conduit. Scaling to planetary interiors and high pressure mineral experiments indicates that molten silicates and volatiles are entrained toward the iron core and initiate buoyant thermochemical plumes that later oxidize and hydrate the upper mantle. Surface volcanism from thermochemical plumes releases oxygen and volatiles linking atmospheric growth to the Earth's mantle and core processes.
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22
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23
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Dauphas N. The isotopic nature of the Earth's accreting material through time. Nature 2017; 541:521-524. [PMID: 28128239 DOI: 10.1038/nature20830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The Earth formed by accretion of Moon- to Mars-size embryos coming from various heliocentric distances. The isotopic nature of these bodies is unknown. However, taking meteorites as a guide, most models assume that the Earth must have formed from a heterogeneous assortment of embryos with distinct isotopic compositions. High-precision measurements, however, show that the Earth, the Moon and enstatite meteorites have almost indistinguishable isotopic compositions. Models have been proposed that reconcile the Earth-Moon similarity with the inferred heterogeneous nature of Earth-forming material, but these models either require specific geometries for the Moon-forming impact or can explain only one aspect of the Earth-Moon similarity (that is, 17O). Here I show that elements with distinct affinities for metal can be used to decipher the isotopic nature of the Earth's accreting material through time. I find that the mantle signatures of lithophile O, Ca, Ti and Nd, moderately siderophile Cr, Ni and Mo, and highly siderophile Ru record different stages of the Earth's accretion; yet all those elements point to material that was isotopically most similar to enstatite meteorites. This isotopic similarity indicates that the material accreted by the Earth always comprised a large fraction of enstatite-type impactors (about half were E-type in the first 60 per cent of the accretion and all of the impactors were E-type after that). Accordingly, the giant impactor that formed the Moon probably had an isotopic composition similar to that of the Earth, hence relaxing the constraints on models of lunar formation. Enstatite meteorites and the Earth were formed from the same isotopic reservoir but they diverged in their chemical evolution owing to subsequent fractionation by nebular and planetary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dauphas
- Origins Laboratory, Department of the Geophysical Sciences and Enrico Fermi Institute, The University of Chicago, 5734 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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24
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An early geodynamo driven by exsolution of mantle components from Earth's core. Nature 2016; 536:326-8. [PMID: 27437583 PMCID: PMC4998958 DOI: 10.1038/nature18594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Terrestrial core formation occurred in the early molten Earth by
gravitational segregation of immiscible metal and silicate melts, stripping
iron-loving elements from the silicate mantle to the metallic core1–3, and leaving rock-loving components behind. Here we performed
experiments showing that at high enough temperature, Earth’s major
rock-loving component, magnesium oxide, can also dissolve in core-forming
metallic melts. Our data clearly point to a dissolution reaction, and are in
agreement with recent DFT calculations4.
Using core formation models5, we further
show that a high-temperature event during Earth’s accretion (such as the
Moon-forming giant impact6) can contribute
significant amounts of magnesium to the early core. As it subsequently cools,
the ensuing exsolution7 of buoyant
magnesium oxide generates a substantial amount of gravitational energy. This
energy is comparable to if not significantly higher than that produced by inner
core solidification8 — the primary
driver of the Earth’s current magnetic field9–11. Since
the inner core is too young12 to explain
the existence of an ancient field prior to ~1 billion years, our results
solve the conundrum posed by the recent paleomagnetic observation13 of an ancient field at least 3.45 Gyr
old.
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