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Wang F, Chen Z, Zhou Q, Sun Q, Zheng N, Chen Z, Lin J, Li B, Li L. Implications of liquid-liquid phase separation and ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropharmacology 2024; 259:110083. [PMID: 39043267 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.110083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Neuronal cell demise represents a prevalent occurrence throughout the advancement of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the mechanism of triggering the death of neuronal cells remains unclear. Its potential mechanisms include aggregation of soluble amyloid-beta (Aβ) to form insoluble amyloid plaques, abnormal phosphorylation of tau protein and formation of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuroinflammation, ferroptosis, oxidative stress, liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and metal ion disorders. Among them, ferroptosis is an iron-dependent lipid peroxidation-driven cell death and emerging evidences have demonstrated the involvement of ferroptosis in the pathological process of AD. The sensitivity to ferroptosis is tightly linked to numerous biological processes. Moreover, emerging evidences indicate that LLPS has great impacts on regulating human health and diseases, especially AD. Soluble Aβ can undergo LLPS to form liquid-like droplets, which can lead to the formation of insoluble amyloid plaques. Meanwhile, tau has a high propensity to condensate via the mechanism of LLPS, which can lead to the formation of NFTs. In this review, we summarize the most recent advancements pertaining to LLPS and ferroptosis in AD. Our primary focus is on expounding the influence of Aβ, tau protein, iron ions, and lipid oxidation on the intricate mechanisms underlying ferroptosis and LLPS within the domain of AD pathology. Additionally, we delve into the intricate cross-interactions that occur between LLPS and ferroptosis in the context of AD. Our findings are expected to serve as a theoretical and experimental foundation for clinical research and targeted therapy for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuwei Wang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Zihao Chen
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Qiong Zhou
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Qiang Sun
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Nan Zheng
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Ziwen Chen
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Jiantao Lin
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China.
| | - Baohong Li
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China.
| | - Li Li
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine and New Pharmaceutical Development, The Affiliated Dongguan Songshan Lake Central Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China.
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Kurtulmus A, Yildiz FBP. The potential role of gamma-secretase complex in schizophrenia: Bridging neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative hypotheses. Schizophr Res 2024; 270:258-259. [PMID: 38943929 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2024.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/01/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Kurtulmus
- Department of Psychiatry, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Turkey; Department of Genetics, Aziz Sancar Enstitute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey.
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AbdEl-Raouf K, Farrag HSH, Rashed R, Ismail MA, El-Ganzuri MA, El-Sayed WM. New bithiophene derivative attenuated Alzheimer's disease induced by aluminum in a rat model via antioxidant activity and restoration of neuronal and synaptic transmission. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2024; 82:127352. [PMID: 38070385 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2023.127352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the hypotheses that leads to an increased incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the accumulation of aluminum in the brain's frontal cortex. The present study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic role of a novel bithiophene derivative at two doses against AlCl3-induced AD in a rat model. METHODOLOGY Adult male rats were divided into six groups, 18 rats each. Group 1: naïve animals, group 2: animals received a daily oral administration of bithiophene dissolved in DMSO (1 mg/kg) for 30 days every other day, groups 3-6: animals received a daily oral administration of AlCl3 (100 mg/kg/day) for 45 consecutive days. Groups 4 and 5 received an oral administration of low or high dose of the bithiophene (0.5 or 1 mg/kg, respectively). Group 6; Animals were treated with a daily oral dose of memantine (20 mg/kg) for 30 consecutive days. MAIN FINDINGS Al disturbed the antioxidant milieu, elevated the lipid peroxidation, and depleted the antioxidants. It also disturbed the synaptic neurotransmission by elevating the activities of acetylcholine esterase and monoamine oxidase resulting in the depletion of dopamine and serotonin and accumulation of glutamate and norepinephrine. Al also deteriorated the expression of genes involved in apoptosis and the production of amyloid-β plaques as well as phosphorylation of tau. The new bithiophene at the low dose reversed most of the previous deleterious effects of aluminum in the cerebral cortex and was in many instances superior to the reference drug; memantine. CONCLUSION Taking together, the bithiophene modulated the AD etiology through antioxidant activity, prevention of neuronal and synaptic loss, and probably mitigating the formation of amyloid-β plaques and phosphorylation of tau.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kholoud AbdEl-Raouf
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, 11566 Cairo, Egypt
| | | | - Rashed Rashed
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, 11566 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A Ismail
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Monir A El-Ganzuri
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, 11566 Cairo, Egypt
| | - Wael M El-Sayed
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, 11566 Cairo, Egypt.
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Fu Q, Zhang B, Chen X, Chu L. Liquid-liquid phase separation in Alzheimer's disease. J Mol Med (Berl) 2024; 102:167-181. [PMID: 38167731 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-023-02407-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The pathological aggregation and misfolding of tau and amyloid-β play a key role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying pathological mechanisms remain unclear. Emerging evidences indicate that liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) has great impacts on regulating human health and diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases. A series of studies have revealed the significance of LLPS in AD. In this review, we summarize the latest progress of LLPS in AD, focusing on the impact of metal ions, small-molecule inhibitors, and proteinaceous partners on tau LLPS and aggregation, as well as toxic oligomerization, the role of LLPS on amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation, and the cross-interactions between amyloidogenic proteins in AD. Eventually, the fundamental methods and techniques used in LLPS study are introduced. We expect to present readers a deeper understanding of the relationship between LLPS and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinggang Fu
- Hepatic Surgery Center and Hubei Key Laboratory of Hepato-Pancreatic-Biliary Diseases, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Bixiang Zhang
- Hepatic Surgery Center and Hubei Key Laboratory of Hepato-Pancreatic-Biliary Diseases, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaoping Chen
- Hepatic Surgery Center and Hubei Key Laboratory of Hepato-Pancreatic-Biliary Diseases, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Liang Chu
- Hepatic Surgery Center and Hubei Key Laboratory of Hepato-Pancreatic-Biliary Diseases, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China.
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Area-Gomez E, Schon EA. Towards a Unitary Hypothesis of Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 98:1243-1275. [PMID: 38578892 DOI: 10.3233/jad-231318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
The "amyloid cascade" hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis invokes the accumulation in the brain of plaques (containing the amyloid-β protein precursor [AβPP] cleavage product amyloid-β [Aβ]) and tangles (containing hyperphosphorylated tau) as drivers of pathogenesis. However, the poor track record of clinical trials based on this hypothesis suggests that the accumulation of these peptides is not the only cause of AD. Here, an alternative hypothesis is proposed in which the AβPP cleavage product C99, not Aβ, is the main culprit, via its role as a regulator of cholesterol metabolism. C99, which is a cholesterol sensor, promotes the formation of mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes (MAM), a cholesterol-rich lipid raft-like subdomain of the ER that communicates, both physically and biochemically, with mitochondria. We propose that in early-onset AD (EOAD), MAM-localized C99 is elevated above normal levels, resulting in increased transport of cholesterol from the plasma membrane to membranes of intracellular organelles, such as ER/endosomes, thereby upregulating MAM function and driving pathology. By the same token, late-onset AD (LOAD) is triggered by any genetic variant that increases the accumulation of intracellular cholesterol that, in turn, boosts the levels of C99 and again upregulates MAM function. Thus, the functional cause of AD is upregulated MAM function that, in turn, causes the hallmark disease phenotypes, including the plaques and tangles. Accordingly, the MAM hypothesis invokes two key interrelated elements, C99 and cholesterol, that converge at the MAM to drive AD pathogenesis. From this perspective, AD is, at bottom, a lipid disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estela Area-Gomez
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas "Margarita Salas", Spanish National Research Council, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eric A Schon
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Genetics and Development>, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Fan J, Ma Z, Zheng Y, Zhang M, Huang L, Liu H. Folate Deficiency Increased Microglial Amyloid-β Phagocytosis via the RAGE Receptor in Chronic Unpredictable Mild-Stress Rat and BV2 Cells. Nutrients 2023; 15:3501. [PMID: 37630692 PMCID: PMC10457913 DOI: 10.3390/nu15163501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression is often considered one of the prevalent neuropsychiatric symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (AD). β-amyloid (Aβ) metabolism disorders and impaired microglia phagocytosis are potential pathological mechanisms between depression and AD. Folate deficiency (FD) is a risk factor for depression and AD. In this study, we used a chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) rat model and a model of Aβ phagocytosis by BV2 cells to explore the potential mechanisms by which FD affects depression and AD. The results revealed that FD exacerbated depressive behavior and activated microglia in CUMS rats, leading to an increase in intracellular Aβ and phagocytosis-related receptors for advanced glycation end products (RAGE). Then, in vitro results showed that the expression of the RAGE receptor and M2 phenotype marker (CD206) were upregulated by FD treatment in BV2 cells, leading to an increase in Aβ phagocytosis. However, there was no significant difference in the expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and clathrin heavy chain (CHC). Furthermore, when using the RAGE-specific inhibitor FPS-ZM1, there was no significant difference in Aβ uptake between folate-normal (FN) and FD BV2 cell groups. In conclusion, these findings suggest FD may promote microglia phagocytosis Aβ via regulating the expression of RAGE or microglia phenotype under Aβ treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junting Fan
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environment, Nutrition, and Public Health, Center for International Collaborative Research on Environment, Nutrition and Public Health, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Zewei Ma
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environment, Nutrition, and Public Health, Center for International Collaborative Research on Environment, Nutrition and Public Health, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Yunqin Zheng
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environment, Nutrition, and Public Health, Center for International Collaborative Research on Environment, Nutrition and Public Health, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Meilin Zhang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environment, Nutrition, and Public Health, Center for International Collaborative Research on Environment, Nutrition and Public Health, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Li Huang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environment, Nutrition, and Public Health, Center for International Collaborative Research on Environment, Nutrition and Public Health, Tianjin 300070, China
| | - Huan Liu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environment, Nutrition, and Public Health, Center for International Collaborative Research on Environment, Nutrition and Public Health, Tianjin 300070, China
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Gwin MS, Alexeyev MF, Geurts AM, Lee JY, Zhou C, Yang XM, Cohen MV, Downey JM, Barrington RA, Spadafora D, Audia JP, Frank DW, Voth S, Pastukh VV, Bell J, Ayers L, Tambe DT, Nelson AR, Balczon R, Lin MT, Stevens T. Gamma secretase activating protein promotes end-organ dysfunction after bacterial pneumonia. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2023; 325:L174-L189. [PMID: 37366533 PMCID: PMC10396227 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00018.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Pneumonia elicits the production of cytotoxic beta amyloid (Aβ) that contributes to end-organ dysfunction, yet the mechanism(s) linking infection to activation of the amyloidogenic pathway that produces cytotoxic Aβ is unknown. Here, we tested the hypothesis that gamma-secretase activating protein (GSAP), which contributes to the amyloidogenic pathway in the brain, promotes end-organ dysfunction following bacterial pneumonia. First-in-kind Gsap knockout rats were generated. Wild-type and knockout rats possessed similar body weights, organ weights, circulating blood cell counts, arterial blood gases, and cardiac indices at baseline. Intratracheal Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection caused acute lung injury and a hyperdynamic circulatory state. Whereas infection led to arterial hypoxemia in wild-type rats, the alveolar-capillary barrier integrity was preserved in Gsap knockout rats. Infection potentiated myocardial infarction following ischemia-reperfusion injury, and this potentiation was abolished in knockout rats. In the hippocampus, GSAP contributed to both pre- and postsynaptic neurotransmission, increasing the presynaptic action potential recruitment, decreasing neurotransmitter release probability, decreasing the postsynaptic response, and preventing postsynaptic hyperexcitability, resulting in greater early long-term potentiation but reduced late long-term potentiation. Infection abolished early and late long-term potentiation in wild-type rats, whereas the late long-term potentiation was partially preserved in Gsap knockout rats. Furthermore, hippocampi from knockout rats, and both the wild-type and knockout rats following infection, exhibited a GSAP-dependent increase in neurotransmitter release probability and postsynaptic hyperexcitability. These results elucidate an unappreciated role for GSAP in innate immunity and highlight the contribution of GSAP to end-organ dysfunction during infection.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Pneumonia is a common cause of end-organ dysfunction, both during and in the aftermath of infection. In particular, pneumonia is a common cause of lung injury, increased risk of myocardial infarction, and neurocognitive dysfunction, although the mechanisms responsible for such increased risk are unknown. Here, we reveal that gamma-secretase activating protein, which contributes to the amyloidogenic pathway, is important for end-organ dysfunction following infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith S Gwin
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Mikhail F Alexeyev
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Aron M Geurts
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States
| | - Ji Young Lee
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Chun Zhou
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Xi-Ming Yang
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Michael V Cohen
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - James M Downey
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Robert A Barrington
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Domenico Spadafora
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Jonathon P Audia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Dara W Frank
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States
| | - Sarah Voth
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Monroe, Louisiana, United States
| | - Viktoriya V Pastukh
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Jessica Bell
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Linn Ayers
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Dhananjay T Tambe
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Amy R Nelson
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Ron Balczon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Mike T Lin
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
| | - Troy Stevens
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Center for Lung Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama, United States
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Angira D, Chaudhary S, Abiramasundari A, Thiruvenkatam V. To Explore the Binding Affinity of Human γ-Secretase Activating Protein (GSAP) Isoform 4 with APP-C99 Peptides. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:13435-13443. [PMID: 37065030 PMCID: PMC10099435 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c01117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
γ-Secretase activating protein (GSAP) is known to play an important role in the β-amyloid pathway. It acts as a modulator and accentuates the truncation of the amyloid precursor protein C-99 fragment through the γ-secretase complex. GSAP has four isoforms, out of which canonical isoform 1, a 16 kDa C-terminal portion, has been extensively studied, whereas the function of other three isoforms remains unknown. Here, we explore the GSAP isoform 4 (GSAP_I4) expression and purification from inclusion bodies followed by the refolding of the protein. The secondary structure of GSAP_I4 is predicted using circular dichroism. The protein is further characterized by western blotting and mass spectroscopy analysis. Additionally, biochemical assays and in silico molecular docking and molecular simulation are performed to investigate the binding of GSAP_I4 and APP-C99 peptide fragments. The results reflect that although GSAP_I1 and GSAP_I4 share high sequence similarity, the isoform 4 does not show any affinity toward APP-C99 peptide fragments. This hints toward the fact that GSAP_I4 might have a different role in the living system that is yet unexplored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deekshi Angira
- Discipline
of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology
Gandhinagar, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Sonali Chaudhary
- Discipline
of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology
Gandhinagar, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Arumugam Abiramasundari
- Discipline
of Biological Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Gandhinagar, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Vijay Thiruvenkatam
- Discipline
of Biological Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Gandhinagar, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
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