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Reyes GI, Flack CE, Parkinson JS. The Structural Logic of Dynamic Signaling in the Escherichia coli Serine Chemoreceptor. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.23.604838. [PMID: 39091725 PMCID: PMC11291126 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.23.604838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
The experimental challenges posed by integral membrane proteins hinder molecular understanding of transmembrane signaling mechanisms. Here, we exploited protein crosslinking assays in living cells to follow conformational and dynamic stimulus signals in Tsr, the Escherichia coli serine chemoreceptor. Tsr mediates serine chemotaxis by integrating transmembrane serine-binding inputs with adaptational modifications of a methylation helix bundle to regulate a signaling kinase at the cytoplasmic tip of the receptor molecule. We created a series of cysteine replacements at Tsr residues adjacent to hydrophobic packing faces of the bundle helices and crosslinked them with a cell-permeable, bifunctional thiol-reagent. We identified an extensively crosslinked dynamic junction midway through the methylation helix bundle that seemed uniquely poised to respond to serine signals. We explored its role in mediating signaling shifts between different packing arrangements of the bundle helices by measuring crosslinking in receptor molecules with apposed pairs of cysteine reporters in each subunit and assessing their signaling behaviors with an in vivo kinase assay. In the absence of serine, the bundle helices evinced compact kinase-ON packing arrangements; in the presence of serine, the dynamic junction destabilized adjacent bundle segments and shifted the bundle to an expanded, less stable kinase-OFF helix-packing arrangement. An AlphaFold 3 model of kinase-active Tsr showed a prominent bulge and kink at the dynamic junction that might antagonize stable structure at the receptor tip. Serine stimuli probably inhibit kinase activity by shifting the bundle to a less stably-packed conformation that relaxes structural strain at the receptor tip, thereby freezing kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina I. Reyes
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Caralyn E. Flack
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - John S. Parkinson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
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2
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Wannitikul P, Dachphun I, Sakulkoo J, Suttangkakul A, Wonnapinij P, Simister R, Gomez LD, Vuttipongchaikij S. In Vivo Proximity Cross-Linking and Immunoprecipitation of Cell Wall Epitopes Identify Proteins Associated with the Biosynthesis of Matrix Polysaccharides. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:31438-31454. [PMID: 39072051 PMCID: PMC11270709 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c00534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Identification of proteins involved in cell wall matrix polysaccharide biosynthesis is crucial to understand plant cell wall biology. We utilized in vivo cross-linking and immunoprecipitation with cell wall antibodies that recognized xyloglucan, xylan, mannan, and homogalacturonan to capture proteins associated with matrix polysaccharides in Arabidopsis protoplasts. The use of cross-linkers allowed us to capture proteins actively associated with cell wall polymers, including those directly interacting with glycans via glycan-protein (GP) cross-linkers and those associated with proteins linked to glycans via a protein-protein (PP) cross-linker. Immunoprecipitations led to the identification of 65 Arabidopsis protein IDs localized in the Golgi, ER, plasma membrane, and others without subcellular localization data. Among these, we found several glycosyltransferases directly involved in polysaccharide synthesis, along with proteins related to cell wall modification and vesicle trafficking. Protein interaction networks from DeepAraPPI and AtMAD databases showed interactions between various IDs, including those related to cell-wall-associated proteins and membrane/vesicle trafficking proteins. Gene expression and coexpression analyses supported the presence and relevance of the proteins to the cell wall processes. Reverse genetic studies using T-DNA insertion mutants of selected proteins revealed changes in cell wall composition and saccharification, further supporting their potential roles in cell wall biosynthesis. Overall, our approach represents a novel approach for studying cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis and associated proteins, providing advantages over traditional immunoprecipitation techniques. This study provides a list of putative proteins associated with different matrix polysaccharides for further investigation and highlights the complexity of cell wall biosynthesis and trafficking within plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pitchaporn Wannitikul
- Department
of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart
University, 50 Ngarm Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Issariya Dachphun
- Department
of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart
University, 50 Ngarm Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Jenjira Sakulkoo
- Department
of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart
University, 50 Ngarm Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Anongpat Suttangkakul
- Department
of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart
University, 50 Ngarm Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Center
of Advanced Studies for Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Omics
Center for Agriculture, Bioresources, Food and Health, Kasetsart University (OmiKU), Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Passorn Wonnapinij
- Department
of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart
University, 50 Ngarm Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Center
of Advanced Studies for Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Omics
Center for Agriculture, Bioresources, Food and Health, Kasetsart University (OmiKU), Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Rachael Simister
- CNAP,
Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United
Kingdom
| | - Leonardo D. Gomez
- CNAP,
Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United
Kingdom
| | - Supachai Vuttipongchaikij
- Department
of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart
University, 50 Ngarm Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Center
of Advanced Studies for Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chattuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Omics
Center for Agriculture, Bioresources, Food and Health, Kasetsart University (OmiKU), Bangkok 10900, Thailand
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3
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Huang Z, Zou J, Guo M, Zhang G, Gao J, Zhao H, Yan F, Niu Y, Wang GL. An aerotaxis receptor influences invasion of Agrobacterium tumefaciens into its host. PeerJ 2024; 12:e16898. [PMID: 38332807 PMCID: PMC10851874 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil-borne pathogenic bacterium that causes crown gall disease in many plants. Chemotaxis offers A. tumefaciens the ability to find its host and establish infection. Being an aerobic bacterium, A. tumefaciens possesses one chemotaxis system with multiple potential chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors play an important role in perceiving and responding to environmental signals. However, the studies of chemoreceptors in A. tumefaciens remain relatively restricted. Here, we characterized a cytoplasmic chemoreceptor of A. tumefaciens C58 that contains an N-terminal globin domain. The chemoreceptor was designated as Atu1027. The deletion of Atu1027 not only eliminated the aerotactic response of A. tumefaciens to atmospheric air but also resulted in a weakened chemotactic response to multiple carbon sources. Subsequent site-directed mutagenesis and phenotypic analysis showed that the conserved residue His100 in Atu1027 is essential for the globin domain's function in both chemotaxis and aerotaxis. Furthermore, deleting Atu1027 impaired the biofilm formation and pathogenicity of A. tumefaciens. Collectively, our findings demonstrated that Atu1027 functions as an aerotaxis receptor that affects agrobacterial chemotaxis and the invasion of A. tumefaciens into its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Huang
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Junnan Zou
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Minliang Guo
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Guoliang Zhang
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jun Gao
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Hongliang Zhao
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Feiyu Yan
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yuan Niu
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Guang-Long Wang
- Jiangsu Provincial Agricultural Green and Low Carbon Production Technology Engineering Research Center, School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu Province, China
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Wu F, Ren F, Xie X, Meng J, Wu X. The implication of viability and pathogenicity by truncated lipopolysaccharide in Yersinia enterocolitica. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:7165-7180. [PMID: 37728625 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12785-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
The fast envelope stress responses play a key role in the transmission and pathogenesis of Yersinia enterocolitica, one of the most common foodborne pathogens. Our previous study showed that deletion of the waaF gene, essential for the biosynthesis of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) core polysaccharides, led to the formation of a truncated LPS structure and induced cell envelope stress. This envelope stress may disturb the intracellular signal transduction, thereby affecting the physiological functions of Y. enterocolitica. In this study, truncated LPS caused by waaF deletion was used as a model of envelope stress in Y. enterocolitica. We investigated the mechanisms of envelope stress responses and the cellular functions affected by truncated LPS. Transcriptome analysis and phenotypic validation showed that LPS truncation reduced flagellar assembly, bacterial chemotaxis, and inositol phosphate metabolism, presenting lower pathogenicity and viability both in vivo and in vitro environments. Further 4D label-free phosphorylation analysis confirmed that truncated LPS perturbed multiple intracellular signal transduction pathways. Specifically, a comprehensive discussion was conducted on the mechanisms by which chemotactic signal transduction and Rcs system contribute to the inhibition of chemotaxis. Finally, the pathogenicity of Y. enterocolitica with truncated LPS was evaluated in vitro using IPEC-J2 cells as models, and it was found that truncated LPS exhibited reduced adhesion, invasion, and toxicity of Y. enterocolitica to IPEC-J2 cells. Our research provides an understanding of LPS in the regulation of Y. enterocolitica viability and pathogenicity and, thus, opening new avenues to develop novel food safety strategies or drugs to prevent and control Y. enterocolitica infections. KEY POINTS: • Truncated LPS reduces flagellar assembly, chemotaxis, and inositol phosphate metabolism in Y. enterocolitica. • Truncated LPS reduces adhesion, invasion, and toxicity of Y. enterocolitica to IPEC-J2 cells. • Truncated LPS regulates intracellular signal transduction of Y. enterocolitica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Fengyun Ren
- Laboratory of Nutrient Resources and Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Science, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Xixian Xie
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China.
| | - Jiao Meng
- Laboratory of Nutrient Resources and Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Science, Tianjin, 300308, China.
| | - Xin Wu
- Laboratory of Nutrient Resources and Synthetic Biology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Science, Tianjin, 300308, China
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5
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Guo L, Wang YH, Cui R, Huang Z, Hong Y, Qian JW, Ni B, Xu AM, Jiang CY, Zhulin IB, Liu SJ, Li DF. Attractant and repellent induce opposing changes in the four-helix bundle ligand-binding domain of a bacterial chemoreceptor. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3002429. [PMID: 38079456 PMCID: PMC10735184 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Motile bacteria navigate toward favorable conditions and away from unfavorable environments using chemotaxis. Mechanisms of sensing attractants are well understood; however, molecular aspects of how bacteria sense repellents have not been established. Here, we identified malate as a repellent recognized by the MCP2201 chemoreceptor in a bacterium Comamonas testosteroni and showed that it binds to the same site as an attractant citrate. Binding determinants for a repellent and an attractant had only minor differences, and a single amino acid substitution in the binding site inverted the response to malate from a repellent to an attractant. We found that malate and citrate affect the oligomerization state of the ligand-binding domain in opposing way. We also observed opposing effects of repellent and attractant binding on the orientation of an alpha helix connecting the sensory domain to the transmembrane helix. We propose a model to illustrate how positive and negative signals might be generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yun-Hao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Rui Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhou Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Hong
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jia-Wei Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - An-Ming Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China
| | - Cheng-Ying Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Igor B. Zhulin
- Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Shuang-Jiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - De-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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6
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Hathcock D, Yu Q, Mello BA, Amin DN, Hazelbauer GL, Tu Y. A nonequilibrium allosteric model for receptor-kinase complexes: The role of energy dissipation in chemotaxis signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2303115120. [PMID: 37824527 PMCID: PMC10589639 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2303115120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The Escherichia coli chemotaxis signaling pathway has served as a model system for the adaptive sensing of environmental signals by large protein complexes. The chemoreceptors control the kinase activity of CheA in response to the extracellular ligand concentration and adapt across a wide concentration range by undergoing methylation and demethylation. Methylation shifts the kinase response curve by orders of magnitude in ligand concentration while incurring a much smaller change in the ligand binding curve. Here, we show that the disproportionate shift in binding and kinase response is inconsistent with equilibrium allosteric models. To resolve this inconsistency, we present a nonequilibrium allosteric model that explicitly includes the dissipative reaction cycles driven by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis. The model successfully explains all existing joint measurements of ligand binding, receptor conformation, and kinase activity for both aspartate and serine receptors. Our results suggest that the receptor complex acts as an enzyme: Receptor methylation modulates the ON-state kinetics of the kinase (e.g., phosphorylation rate), while ligand binding controls the equilibrium balance between kinase ON/OFF states. Furthermore, sufficient energy dissipation is responsible for maintaining and enhancing the sensitivity range and amplitude of the kinase response. We demonstrate that the nonequilibrium allosteric model is broadly applicable to other sensor-kinase systems by successfully fitting previously unexplained data from the DosP bacterial oxygen-sensing system. Overall, this work provides a nonequilibrium physics perspective on cooperative sensing by large protein complexes and opens up research directions for understanding their microscopic mechanisms through simultaneous measurements and modeling of ligand binding and downstream responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hathcock
- IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY10598
| | - Qiwei Yu
- IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY10598
- Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ08544
| | - Bernardo A. Mello
- International Center of Physics, Physics Institute, University of Brasilia, Brasilia70919-970, Brazil
| | - Divya N. Amin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO65211
| | | | - Yuhai Tu
- IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY10598
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Louis G, Cherry P, Michaux C, Rahuel-Clermont S, Dieu M, Tilquin F, Maertens L, Van Houdt R, Renard P, Perpete E, Matroule JY. A cytoplasmic chemoreceptor and reactive oxygen species mediate bacterial chemotaxis to copper. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105207. [PMID: 37660909 PMCID: PMC10579534 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemotaxis is a widespread strategy used by unicellular and multicellular living organisms to maintain their fitness in stressful environments. We previously showed that bacteria can trigger a negative chemotactic response to a copper (Cu)-rich environment. Cu ion toxicity on bacterial cell physiology has been mainly linked to mismetallation events and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, although the precise role of Cu-generated ROS remains largely debated. Here, using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry on cell fractionates, we found that the cytoplasmic Cu ion content mirrors variations of the extracellular Cu ion concentration. ROS-sensitive fluorescent probe and biosensor allowed us to show that the increase of cytoplasmic Cu ion content triggers a dose-dependent oxidative stress, which can be abrogated by superoxide dismutase and catalase overexpression. The inhibition of ROS production in the cytoplasm not only improves bacterial growth but also impedes Cu chemotaxis, indicating that ROS derived from cytoplasmic Cu ions mediate the control of bacterial chemotaxis to Cu. We also identified the Cu chemoreceptor McpR, which binds Cu ions with low affinity, suggesting a labile interaction. In addition, we demonstrate that the cysteine 75 and histidine 99 within the McpR sensor domain are key residues in Cu chemotaxis and Cu coordination. Finally, we discovered that in vitro both Cu(I) and Cu(II) ions modulate McpR conformation in a distinct manner. Overall, our study provides mechanistic insights on a redox-based control of Cu chemotaxis, indicating that the cellular redox status can play a key role in bacterial chemotaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwennaëlle Louis
- Research Unit in Biology of Microorganisms (URBM), Department of Biology, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Pauline Cherry
- Research Unit in Biology of Microorganisms (URBM), Department of Biology, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Catherine Michaux
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique des Biomolécules, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS) and Namur Institute of Structured Matter (NISM), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | | | - Marc Dieu
- MaSUN, Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Françoise Tilquin
- Research Unit in Biology of Microorganisms (URBM), Department of Biology, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Laurens Maertens
- Research Unit in Biology of Microorganisms (URBM), Department of Biology, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium; Microbiology Unit, Interdisciplinary Biosciences, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Mol, Belgium
| | - Rob Van Houdt
- Microbiology Unit, Interdisciplinary Biosciences, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Mol, Belgium
| | - Patricia Renard
- MaSUN, Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Eric Perpete
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique des Biomolécules, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS) and Namur Institute of Structured Matter (NISM), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Jean-Yves Matroule
- Research Unit in Biology of Microorganisms (URBM), Department of Biology, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, Namur, Belgium.
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