A newly identified horseshoe crab lectin with specificity for blood group A antigen recognizes specific O-antigens of bacterial lipopolysaccharides

Host Defense Proteins and Peptides with Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Activity from Marine Invertebrates and Their Therapeutic Potential in Gram-Negative Sepsis

Sepsis is a life-threatening complication of an infectious process that results from the excessive and uncontrolled activation of the host's pro-inflammatory immune response to a pathogen. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), also known as endotoxin, which is a major component of Gram-negative bacteria's outer membrane, plays a key role in the development of Gram-negative sepsis and septic shock in humans. To date, no specific and effective drug against sepsis has been developed. This review summarizes data on LPS-binding proteins from marine invertebrates (ILBPs) that inhibit LPS toxic effects and are of interest as potential drugs for sepsis treatment. The structure, physicochemical properties, antimicrobial, and LPS-binding/neutralizing activity of these proteins and their synthetic analogs are considered in detail. Problems that arise during clinical trials of potential anti-endotoxic drugs are discussed.

New insights into the hemolymph coagulation cascade of horseshoe crabs initiated by autocatalytic activation of a lipopolysaccharide-sensitive zymogen

The concept of a chain reaction of proteolytic activation of multiple protease zymogens was first proposed to explain the blood clotting system in mammals as an enzyme cascade. In multicellular organisms, similar enzyme cascades are widely present in signal transduction and amplification systems. The initiation step of the blood coagulation cascade often consists of autocatalytic activation of the corresponding zymogens located on the surfaces of host- or foreign-derived substances at injured sites. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the concept of autocatalytic activation remains speculative. In this review, we will focus on the autocatalytic activation of prochelicerase C on the surface of lipopolysaccharide as a potential initiator of hemolymph coagulation in horseshoe crabs. Prochelicerase C is presumed to have evolved from a common complement factor in Chelicerata; thus, evolutionary insights into the hemolymph coagulation and complement systems in horseshoe crabs will also be discussed.

Proteomic analysis of Malaysian Horseshoe crab (Tachypleus gigas) hemocytes gives insights into its innate immunity host defence system and other biological processes

Horseshoe crabs are one of the most studied invertebrates due to their remarkable innate immunity mechanism and biological processes. In this work, the proteins of the lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated and non-stimulated hemocytes of Malaysian Tachypleus gigas were profiled using LC-MS/MS. A total of 154 proteins were identified in both types of samples. Additionally, seventy-seven proteins were commonly found in both conditions, while 52 and 25 proteins were uniquely found in the LPS-stimulated and non-stimulated hemocytes, respectively. ATP-dependent energy-generating proteins such as actins and BLTX actin-related proteins were detected in both stimulated and non-stimulated T. gigas hemocytes, but more of such proteins were found in the former type. Proteins such as tachylectin-2, coagulogen, c-reactive proteins, histones, hemocyanin, and DNA polymerase, which play key roles in the organism’s innate immunity, were differentially expressed in the hemocytes following LPS challenge. In conclusion, the proteins identified in the hemolymph of T. gigas are vital for the organism’s molecular functions, biological processes, and activation of innate immunity.

Roles and Biomedical Applications of Haemolymph Lectin

BACKGROUND

Lectins are class of proteins characterized by their ability to selectively bind carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins. Many invertebrate lectins, especially derived from hemolymph, are being purified, and yet their functions and medical applications are subjects of major interest.

METHODS

Hemolymph lectins in invertebrates play a major role in protecting against many pathogens and microbes. Further, many hemolymph lectins show anticancer properties towards various cancer cell lines, which expresses globotriaosyl ceramides on their cell surface.

RESULTS

These vast repertoires of hemolymph lectins in recognizing and inhibiting the growth of various harmful microbes and cancerous cells have spurred the biochemist to use them in histochemical and cytochemical studies.

CONCLUSION

The present review will address the biological roles and biomedical applications of hemolymph lectin.

Chromosome-level assembly of the horseshoe crab genome provides insights into its genome evolution

The evolutionary history of horseshoe crabs, spanning approximately 500 million years, is characterized by remarkable morphological stasis and a low species diversity with only four extant species. Here we report a chromosome-level genome assembly for the mangrove horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda) using PacBio reads and Hi-C data. The assembly spans 1.67 Gb with contig N50 of 7.8 Mb and 98% of the genome assigned to 16 chromosomes. The genome contains five Hox clusters with 34 Hox genes, the highest number reported in any invertebrate. Detailed analysis of the genome provides evidence that suggests three rounds of whole-genome duplication (WGD), raising questions about the relationship between WGD and species radiation. Several gene families, particularly those involved in innate immunity, have undergone extensive tandem duplication. These expanded gene families may be important components of the innate immune system of horseshoe crabs, whose amebocyte lysate is a sensitive agent for detecting endotoxin contamination.

Horseshoe crabs have been morphologically stable across evolutionary time. Here, the authors generate a chromosome-level assembly for the mangrove horseshoe crab, with implications for innate immunity, and challenging assumptions about the role of genome duplication in adaptive radiation.

Antimicrobial properties and phenoloxidase activation of the lectin isolated from kadal shrimp (Metapenaeus dobsoni)

The present study reveals purification and characterization of the lectin from the haemolymph of Metapenaeus dobsoni. The Md-Lec was purified by affinity chromatography with mannose coupled sepharose CL-4B column and it exhibits single band with a molecular weight of 68 kDa in SDS-PAGE. Furthermore, the molecular mass was confirmed by MALDI-TOF and functional groups present were analysed by FTIR. The surface morphology of purified Md-Lec displays the homogeneous nature of protein. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis expresses three peaks at 10.7716̊, 21.6258̊ and 31.7523̊which indicate the crystalline nature of the protein and the retention time of 3.068 min evident from HPLC reveals the purity of the sample. Functional analysis of purified Md-Lec exhibits yeast agglutination activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae and has the ability to agglutinate the human erythrocytes, which was observed by light microscopy. It also exhibited phenoloxidase activation, encapsulation and phagocytic activities. In addition, purified Md-Lec showed the broad spectrum of bacterial agglutination activity against Gram negative Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Aeromonas hydrophila, important fish pathogens. Antiviral potential and anticancer activity of purified Md-Lec against CyHV-2 virus and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines were also evaluated in this study.

Foreword to 'Multiscale structural biology: biophysical principles and mechanisms underlying the action of bio-nanomachines', a special issue in Honour of Fumio Arisaka's 70th birthday

This issue of Biophysical Reviews, titled 'Multiscale structural biology: biophysical principles and mechanisms underlying the action of bio-nanomachines', is a collection of articles dedicated in honour of Professor Fumio Arisaka's 70th birthday. Initially, working in the fields of haemocyanin and actin filament assembly, Fumio went on to publish important work on the elucidation of structural and functional aspects of T4 phage biology. As his career has transitioned levels of complexity from proteins (hemocyanin) to large protein complexes (actin) to even more massive bio-nanomachinery (phage), it is fitting that the subject of this special issue is similarly reflective of his multiscale approach to structural biology. This festschrift contains articles spanning biophysical structure and function from the bio-molecular through to the bio-nanomachine level.

Purification, characterization and functional analysis of the immune molecule lectin from the haemolymph of blue swimmer crab Portunus pelagicus and their antibiofilm properties

The present study reveals purification and characterization of immune molecule lectin from the haemolymph of blue swimmer crab Portunus pelagicus (Pp-Lec). The Pp-Lec was purified by affinity chromatography with mannose coupled sepharose CL-4B column and it exhibits single band with a molecular weight of 155 kDa in SDS-PAGE. The surface morphology of purified Pp-Lec displays the homogeneous nature of protein. A distinct peak with a retention time of 3.3 min was appeared in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis expresses a single peak at 31.5° which shows the purity and crystalline nature of the protein respectively. Functional analysis of purified Pp-Lec exhibits encapsulation activity against sepharose beads and yeast agglutination activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Moreover, the purified Pp-Lec has the ability to agglutinates with the human erythrocytes among tested and which was observed by light microscopy. In addition, purified Pp-Lec showed the broad spectrum of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive Bacillus pumulis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Enterococcus faecalis and Gram negative Citrobacter amalonaticus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Citrobacter murliniae, Citrobacter freundii, Morganella morganii. Antibiofilm potential of purified Pp-Lec against selective Gram-negative bacteria showed the disruption of biofilm architecture at the concentration of 50 μg ml^-1.

Molecular basis of non-self recognition by the horseshoe crab lectins

The target molecules of innate immunity are not proteins of direct gene products but the molecular arrays or patterns on pathogens, called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The self/non-self discrimination by innate immunity through simple ligands universally expressed both on pathogens and hosts, such as monosaccharides and the acetyl group, probably depends on the density or clustering patterns of the ligands. The specific recognition by the horseshoe crab lectins, named tachylectins, with a propeller-like fold or a propeller-like oligomeric arrangement is reinforced by the short distance between the individual binding sites that interact with PAMPs. There is virtually no conformational change in the main or side chains of tachylectins upon binding with the ligands. This low structural flexibility of the propeller structures must be very important for specific interaction with PAMPs.

Porifera Lectins: Diversity, Physiological Roles and Biotechnological Potential

An overview on the diversity of 39 lectins from the phylum Porifera is presented, including 38 lectins, which were identified from the class of demosponges, and one lectin from the class of hexactinellida. Their purification from crude extracts was mainly performed by using affinity chromatography and gel filtration techniques. Other protocols were also developed in order to collect and study sponge lectins, including screening of sponge genomes and expression in heterologous bacterial systems. The characterization of the lectins was performed by Edman degradation or mass spectrometry. Regarding their physiological roles, sponge lectins showed to be involved in morphogenesis and cell interaction, biomineralization and spiculogenesis, as well as host defense mechanisms and potentially in the association between the sponge and its microorganisms. In addition, these lectins exhibited a broad range of bioactivities, including modulation of inflammatory response, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities, as well as anticancer and neuromodulatory activity. In view of their potential pharmacological applications, sponge lectins constitute promising molecules of biotechnological interest.

A recombinant horseshoe crab plasma lectin recognizes specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns of bacteria through rhamnose

Horseshoe crab is an ancient marine arthropod that, in the absence of a vertebrate-like immune system, relies solely on innate immune responses by defense molecules found in hemolymph plasma and granular hemocytes for host defense. A plasma lectin isolated from the hemolymph of Taiwanese Tachypleus tridentatus recognizes bacteria and lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), yet its structure and mechanism of action remain unclear, largely because of limited availability of horseshoe crabs and the lack of a heterogeneous expression system. In this study, we have successfully expressed and purified a soluble and functional recombinant horseshoe crab plasma lectin (rHPL) in an Escherichia coli system. Interestingly, rHPL bound not only to bacteria and LPSs like the native HPL but also to selective medically important pathogens isolated from clinical specimens, such as Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae and Gram-positive Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes. The binding was demonstrated to occur through a specific molecular interaction with rhamnose in pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the bacterial surface. Additionally, rHPL inhibited the growth of P. aeruginosa PAO1 in a concentration-dependent manner. The results suggest that a specific protein-glycan interaction between rHPL and rhamnosyl residue may further facilitate development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for microbial pathogens.

Crystal structure of the tetrameric fibrinogen-like recognition domain of fibrinogen C domain containing 1 (FIBCD1) protein

The high resolution crystal structures of a recombinant fragment of the C-terminal fibrinogen-like recognition domain of FIBCD1, a vertebrate receptor that binds chitin, have been determined. The overall tetrameric structure shows similarity in structure and aggregation to the horseshoe crab innate immune protein tachylectin 5A. The high affinity ligand N-acetylmannosamine (ManNAc) binds in the S1 site, predominantly via the acetyl group with the oxygen and acetamide nitrogen hydrogen-bonded to the protein and the methyl group inserted into a hydrophobic pocket. The binding of the ManNAc pyranose ring differs markedly between the two independent subunits, but in all structures the binding of the N-acetyl group is conserved. In the native structure, a crystal contact results in one of the independent protomers binding the first GlcNAc of the Asn³⁴⁰N-linked glycan on the other independent protomer. In the ligand-bound structure this GlcNAc is replaced by the higher affinity ligand ManNAc. In addition, a sulfate ion has been modeled into the electron density at a location similar to the S3 binding site in L-ficolin, whereas in the native structure an acetate ion has been placed in the S1 N-acetyl binding site, and a sulfate ion has been placed adjacent to this site. These ion binding sites are ideally placed to receive the N-acetyl and sulfate groups of sulfated GalNAc residues of glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin and dermatan sulfate. Together, these structures give insight into important determinants of ligand selectivity, demonstrating versatility in recognition and binding while maintaining conservation in N-acetyl and calcium binding.

Expression of soybean lectin in transgenic tobacco results in enhanced resistance to pathogens and pests

Lectins are proteins of non-immune origin that specifically interact with carbohydrates, known to play important roles in the defense system of plants. In this study, in order to study the function of a new soybean lectin (SBL), the corresponding encoding gene lec-s was introduced into tobacco plants via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Southern blot analyses had revealed that the lec-s gene was stable integrated into the chromosome of the tobacco. The results of the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) also indicated that the lec-s gene in the transgenic tobacco plants could be expressed under the control of the constitutive CaMV35S promoter. Evaluation agronomic of the performance had showed that the transgenic plants could resist to the infection of Phytophthora nicotianae. Insect bioassays using detached leaves from transgenic tobacco plants demonstrated that the ectopically expressed SBL significantly (P.0.05) reduced the weight gain of larvae of the beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua). Further on, the lectins retarded the development of the larvae and their metamorphosis. These findings suggest that soybean lectins have potential as a protective agent against pathogens and insect pests through a transgenic approach.

Diversified carbohydrate-binding lectins from marine resources

Marine bioresources produce a great variety of specific and potent bioactive molecules including natural organic compounds such as fatty acids, polysaccharides, polyether, peptides, proteins, and enzymes. Lectins are also one of the promising candidates for useful therapeutic agents because they can recognize the specific carbohydrate structures such as proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids, resulting in the regulation of various cells via glycoconjugates and their physiological and pathological phenomenon through the host-pathogen interactions and cell-cell communications. Here, we review the multiple lectins from marine resources including fishes and sea invertebrate in terms of their structure-activity relationships and molecular evolution. Especially, we focus on the unique structural properties and molecular evolution of C-type lectins, galectin, F-type lectin, and rhamnose-binding lectin families.

Characterization of FIBCD1 as an acetyl group-binding receptor that binds chitin

Chitin is a highly acetylated compound and the second most abundant biopolymer in the world next to cellulose. Vertebrates are exposed to chitin both through food ingestion and when infected with parasites, and fungi and chitin modulate the immune response in different directions. We have identified a novel homotetrameric 55-kDa type II transmembrane protein encoded by the FIBCD1 gene and highly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract. The ectodomain of FIBCD1 is characterized by a coiled-coil region, a polycationic region and C-terminal fibrinogen-related domain that by disulfide linkage assembles the protein into tetramers. Functional analysis showed a high-affinity and calcium-dependent binding of acetylated components to the fibrinogen domain, and a function in endocytosis was demonstrated. Screening for ligands revealed that the FIBCD1 is a high-affinity receptor for chitin and chitin fragments. FIBCD1 may play an important role in controlling the exposure of intestine to chitin and chitin fragments, which is of great relevance for the immune defense against parasites and fungi and for immune response modulation.

Growth inhibitory activity of a novel lectin from Cliona varians against K562 human erythroleukemia cells

PURPOSE

In this study, the antitumoral potential of a novel lectin (CvL) purified from the marine sponge Cliona varians was studied in different cancer cell lines.

METHODS

CvL cytotoxicity was evaluated in mammalian tumor cells and in normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes by the MTT assay using the same range of concentrations (1-150 microg ml(-1)). The mechanisms involved in K562 cell death were investigated by confocal fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and immunoblot.

RESULTS

CvL inhibited the growth of human leukemia cells, with IC(50) values of 70 and 100 microg ml(-1) for K562 and JURKAT cells, respectively, but it was ineffective on blood lymphocytes and solid tumor cell lines. K562 cell death occurred 72 h after exposure to the lectin and with signs of apoptosis, as analyzed by DAPI and annexin V/PI staining. Investigation of the possible mediators of this process showed that cell death occurred via a caspase-independent pathway. Confocal fluorescence microscopy indicated a pivotal role for the lysosomal protease cathepsin B in mediating cell death. Accordingly, pre-incubation of K562 cells with the cathepsin inhibitor L-trans-epoxysuccinyl-L-leucylamido-(4-guanidino)butane (E-64) abolished CvL cytotoxic effect. Furthermore, we found upregulation of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and down-modulation of p65 subunit of nuclear factor kappa B (NFkappaB) expression in CvL-treated cells. These effects were accompanied by increased levels of p21 and reduced expression of pRb, suggesting that CvL can induce cell cycle arrest.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these findings indicate an antileukemic effect for CvL and suggest that cathepsin B acts as a death mediator in CvL-induced cytotoxicity possibly in an uncharacterized connection with the membrane death receptor pathway.

MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE LECTIN, BRYOHEALIN, INVOLVED IN PROTOPLAST REGENERATION OF THE MARINE ALGA BRYOPSIS PLUMOSA (CHLOROPHYTA)(1)

When a coenocytic cell of the green alga Bryopsis plumosa (Hudson) C. Agardh was cut open and the cell contents expelled, the cell organelles agglutinated rapidly in seawater to form protoplasts. This process was mediated by a lectin, Bryohealin. The full sequence of the cDNA encoding Bryohealin was obtained, which consisted of 1,101 base pairs (bp), with 24 bp of 5' untranslated region (UTR) and 201 bp of 3' UTR. It had an open reading frame (ORF) of 771 bp encoding 257 amino acid residues. A signal peptide consisted of 22 amino acids presented before the start codon of Bryohealin, indicating that this lectin was a vacuolar (storage) protein. The C-terminal sequence of Bryohealin was composed of antibiotic domains, suggesting that this lectin could perform two functions: (i) aggregation of cell organelles in seawater and (ii) protection from bacterial contamination for successful protoplast regeneration. The BLAST search result showed that Bryohealin had little sequence homology with any known plant lectins, but rather resembled animal lectins with fucolectin domains. The expression of recombinant Bryohealin (rBryohealin) was obtained in the Escherichia coli system.

Induction of phenoloxidase and other immunological activities in Sydney rock oysters challenged with microbial pathogen-associate molecular patterns

This study investigates the effects of two pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), LPS and zymosan, on the Sydney rock oyster (Saccostrea glomerata) immune system. Phenoloxidase and phagocytic activities, total and differential haemocyte frequencies, as well as peroxide and superoxide concentrations were measured after the injection of lipopolysaccharide and zymosan. All of the immunological parameters were induced by both PAMPs. Phenoloxidase (monophenolase and diphenolase) and phagocytic activities, as well as the frequencies of phenoloxidase-positive haemocytes, hyalinocytes and granulocytes in the haemolymph, increased within 24 h of PAMP injection. Values for all of these parameters peaked within 48 h of challenge and began to decrease to levels that were indistinguishable from those of controls within 96h. The only exception to this pattern was diphenolase activity, which remained elevated for at least 96 h. Control saline injections that lacked PAMPs also induced responses in most of the parameters measured. However, reactions to saline injections were of far lower magnitude compared to those induced by PAMPs. All of the data suggest that the phenoloxidase and phagocytic systems of oysters are inducible components of the Sydney rock oyster immune system, and that induction is primarily due to increased frequencies of specialised haemocytes in the haemolymph.

Natural human antibodies to pneumococcus have distinctive molecular characteristics and protect against pneumococcal disease

The molecular and functional characteristics of natural antibody from the preimmune repertoire have not been explored in detail in man. We describe seven human IgM monoclonal antibodies selected on the basis of pneumococcal polysaccharide binding that share both molecular and functional characteristics with natural antibody, suggesting a common B cell lineage origin. Unlike class-switched antibodies, which are serotype-specific, the antibodies were polyreactive and bound all pneumococcal polysaccharide capsular serotypes tested. Some bound endogenous antigens, including blood group antigens and intermediate filament proteins. All the antibodies used unmutated heavy chain V (IGHV) that are expressed at an increased frequency in the elderly and in the preimmune repertoire. The CDR3 was characterized by long length (mean aa 18.4 (+/-4.2) and selective use of IGHD6 (P < 0.001) and IGHJ6 (P < 0.01) family genes. The clones expressing IGHV1-69 and IGHV 3-21 provided significant passive protection against invasive pneumococcal disease in vivo.

Purification and characterization of a lectin from the banana shrimp Fenneropenaeus merguiensis hemolymph

A lectin from the hemolymph of the banana shrimp Fenneropenaeus merguiensis was purified by affinity chromatography on a fetuin-agarose column following by gel filtration on a Superose-12 column. The native molecular mass of purified F. merguiensis lectin (FmL) determined by gel filtration was 316.2 kDa and its carbohydrate content was estimated to be 4.4%. By SDS-PAGE analysis, purified FmL consisted of 32.3 kDa and 30.9 kDa subunits. These data suggest that this lectin is an oligomer. Two-dimensional electrophoresis showed that it had a pI value of 6.0 and was mainly composed of glycine, serine, histidine, glutamic acids and glutamine, with relatively lower amounts of methionine and tyrosine. Purified FmL expressed higher agglutination activity against rabbit and rat erythrocytes than with those from human, and its activity was Ca(2+)-dependent. The hemagglutinating activity of FmL was stable up to 55 degrees C and at pH 7.5-8. N-acetylated sugars, such as ManNAc, GlcNAc, GalNAc, and NeuNAc were strong inhibitors of the FmL induced hemagglutinating activity with NeuNAc being most effective. Porcine stomach mucin and fetuin were the most potent inhibitors of FmL. Purified FmL caused selective agglutination of Vibrio harveyi, and Vibrio parahemolyticus both pathogens of this Penaeus species and to a lesser extent Vibrio vulnificus but had no effect on the non-pathogenic strains; Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli. Its bacterial agglutination was also completely inhibited by NeuNAc, mucin, fetuin and also anti-FmL antibody. This observation indicates that FmL may contribute to the defense response of this species of penaeid shrimps to potentially pathogenic bacteria.

Isolation, characterization and molecular evolution of a novel pearl shell lectin from a marine bivalve, Pteria penguin

A novel lectin, PPL, was isolated from the mantle of penguin wing oyster (Pteria penguin) by affinity chromatography on mucin-Sepharose 4B and cation exchange chromatography on HiTrap SP. This lectin was estimated to be a 21-kDa monomer by gel filtration, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and matrix-assisted time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. However, dynamic light scattering experiments revealed that a non-covalently linked dimer formed under high salt conditions (500 mM NaCl). Interestingly, PPL showed an increasing hemagglutinating activity with increasing salt concentration. The amino acid sequence of PPL was determined by direct protein sequence analysis and cDNA cloning. The 167-amino acid sequence included 24 lysine residues and had two tandemly repeated homologous domains (residues 20-78 and 107-165) with 44% internal homology. PPL showed sequence homology to L-rhamnose-binding lectins from fish eggs and a D-galactose-binding lectin from sea urchin eggs, with sequence identities in the range 37-48%. PPL agglutinated various animal erythrocytes independently of calcium ions. The minimum concentration of PPL needed to agglutinate rabbit erythrocytes was 0.5 micro g/ml, and the most effective saccharides to inhibit the hemagglutination were D-galactose, methyl-D-galactopyranoside and N-acetyl-D-lactosamine. Lactose also inhibited hemagglutination, but L-rhamnose did so only weakly despite the sequence homology with trout egg L-rhamnose-binding lectins. The carbohydrate-binding specificity of PPL was further examined by frontal affinity chromatography using 37 different pyridylaminated oligosaccharides. PPL was found to have strong binding affinity for various oligosaccharides that have Galbeta1-4Glu/GlcNAc, Galbeta1-3GalNAc/GlcNAc and Galalpha 1-4Gal moieties in their structure. PPL had a high thermal stability and retained 50% of its hemagglutinating activity after incubation at 70 degrees C for 100 min. It agglutinated some Gram-negative bacteria by recognizing lipopolysaccharides. Together, these results suggest that PPL is a new member of the trout egg lectin family which participates in the self-defense mechanism against bacteria and pathogens with a distinct carbohydrate-binding specificity. We conclude that the trout egg lectin family proteins, in particular their carbohydrate recognition domains, have acquired diverse carbohydrate-binding specificities during molecular evolution.

A lectin with antifungal and mitogenic activities from red cluster pepper (Capsicum frutescens) seeds

A monomeric mannose/glucose-binding lectin, with a molecular mass of 29.5 kDa and an N-terminal sequence GQRELKL showing resemblance to that of the lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor from the rabbit, has been isolated from the seeds of red cluster pepper Capsium frutescens L. var. fasciculatum. The protocol involved anion exchange chromatography on diethylamino ethanol-cellulose and Q-Sepharose and fast protein liquid chromatography on Mono Q. Its hemagglutinating activity toward rabbit erythrocytes was inhibited by D: -mannose and glucose, specifically. The activity was stable from 0 to 40 degrees C, reached a maximum at pH 7 and 8, and was potentiated by Ca2+ and Mn2+ ions. The lectin showed strong mitogenic activity toward spleen cells isolated from BALB/c mice. The mitogenic activity, which reached a peak at a lectin concentration of 0.27 microM, was inhibited specifically by D(+)-mannose. The lectin was capable of inhibiting the germination of Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium moniliforme spores and hyphal growth in the two fungi.

CvL, a lectin from the marine sponge Cliona varians: Isolation, characterization and its effects on pathogenic bacteria and Leishmania promastigotes

CvL, a lectin from the marine sponge Cliona varians was purified by acetone fractionation followed by Sepharose CL 4B affinity chromatography. CvL agglutinated papainized treated human erythrocytes with preference for type A erythrocytes. The lectin was strongly inhibited by monosaccharide d-galactose and disaccharide sucrose. CvL is a tetrameric glycoprotein of 28 kDa subunits linked by disulphide bridges with a molecular mass of 106 kDa by SDS-PAGE and 114 kDa by Sephacryl S300 gel filtration. The lectin was Ca2+ dependent, stable up to 60 degrees C for 60 min, with optimum pH of 7.5. CvL displays a cytotoxic effect on gram positive bacteria, such as Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. However, CvL did not affect gram negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Leishmania chagasi promastigotes were agglutinated by CvL up to 2(8) titer. These findings are indicative of the physiological defense roles of CvL and its possible use in the antibiosis of bacteria and protozoa pathogenic.

Ligand specificities and structural requirements of two Tachypleus plasma lectins for bacterial trapping

TPL (Tachypleus plasma lectin)-1 was purified by using a Sepharose column and TPL-2 was purified from an LPS-Sepharose (LPS coupled to Sepharose matrix) affinity column, as described previously [Chiou, Chen, Y.-W., Chen, S.-C., Chao and Liu (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 1630-1634] and the corresponding genes were cloned [Chen, Yen, Yeh, Huang and Liu (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 9631-9639]. In the present study, TPL-1 and -2 were produced in yeast, and the recombinant proteins secreted into the media were purified and characterized. The proteins show specific PGN (peptidoglycan)- and LPS-binding activity, suggesting a role in trapping Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria respectively in innate immunity. Using BIAcore assays, the dissociation constant for the TPL-1-PGN complex was measured as 8x10(-8) M. Replacement of Asn74, the N-glycosylation site of TPL-1, with Asp abolishes the PGN-binding affinity, whereas the unglycosylated TPL-2 N3D mutant retains LPS-binding activity. DTT (dithiothreitol) treatment to break disulphide linkages abrogates TPL-2 activity but does not interfere with TPL-1 function. Cys4 in TPL-2 may form an intermolecular disulphide bond, which is essential for activity. As a result, the TPL-2 C4S mutant is inactive and is eluted as a monomer on a non-reducing gel. TPL-2 C6S is active and forms a non-covalently linked dimer. A model describing TPL-2 binding with LPS is proposed. These two plasma lectins that have different ligand specificities can be used for the detection and discrimination of bacteria and removal of endotoxins.

An antimicrobial peptide tachyplesin acts as a secondary secretagogue and amplifies lipopolysaccharide-induced hemocyte exocytosis

In the horseshoe crab, bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces exocytosis by granular hemocytes, resulting in the secretion of various defense molecules, such as lectins and antimicrobial peptides, via a G protein-mediating signaling pathway. This response is a key component of the horseshoe crab innate immune response against infectious microorganisms. Here, we report an endogenous amplification mechanism for LPS-induced hemocytes exocytosis. The concentration of LPS required for maximal secretion decreased in proportion to the density of hemocytes, suggesting the presence of a positive feedback mechanism for secretion via a mediator secreted from hemocytes. The exocytosed fluid of hemocytes was found able to induce hemocyte exocytosis in the absence of LPS. Furthermore, tachyplesin, a major antimicrobial peptide of hemocytes, was able to trigger exocytosis in an LPS-independent manner, which was inhibited by a phospholipase C inhibitor, U-73122, and a G protein inhibitor, pertussis toxin. Surface plasmon resonance analysis showed that tachyplesin directly interacts with bovine G protein. These findings suggest that the tachyplesin-induced hemocyte exocytosis also occurs via a G protein-mediating signaling pathway. We concluded that tachyplesin functions not only as an antimicrobial substance, but also as a secondary secretagogue of LPS-induced hemocyte exocytosis, leading to the amplification of the innate immune reaction at sites of injury.

Recent advances in the innate immunity of invertebrate animals

Invertebrate animals, which lack adaptive immune systems, have developed other systems of biological host defense, so called innate immunity, that respond to common antigens on the cell surfaces of potential pathogens. During the past two decades, the molecular structures and functions of various defense components that participated in innate immune systems have been established in Arthropoda, such as, insects, the horseshoe crab, freshwater crayfish, and the protochordata ascidian. These defense molecules include phenoloxidases, clotting factors, complement factors, lectins, protease inhibitors, antimicrobial peptides, Toll receptors, and other humoral factors found mainly in hemolymph plasma and hemocytes. These components, which together compose the innate immune system, defend invertebrate from invading bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. This review describes the present status of our knowledge concerning such defensive molecules in invertebrates.

L-ficolin is a pattern recognition molecule specific for acetyl groups

L-ficolin and H-ficolin are molecules of the innate immune system. Upon recognition of a suitable target they activate the complement system. The ligand recognition structure of ficolins is contained within a fibrinogen-like domain. We examined the selectivity of the ficolins through inhibiting the binding to bacteria or to beads coupled with N-acetylglucosamine. The binding of L-ficolin to Streptococcus pneumoniae 11F and the beads was inhibited by N-acetylated sugars and not by non-acetylated sugars. However, it was also inhibited by other acetylated compounds. Based on this selectivity L-ficolin is not easily defined as a lectin. The binding of H-ficolin to Aerococcus viridans was not inhibited by any of the sugars or other compounds examined. Based on the selectivity of L-ficolin we developed a new purification procedure involving affinity chromatography on N-acetylcysteine-derivatized Sepharose. The column was loaded in the presence of EDTA and high salt, and L-ficolin was eluted by decreasing the salt concentration. Further purification was achieved by ion exchange chromatography.

Characterization of lectin aggregates in the hemolymph of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii

In invertebrates, lectins play relevant roles in innate immunity; however, their regulatory mechanisms have not been identified yet. In this work, we purified, by gel filtration and affinity chromatography, lectin aggregates circulating in the hemolymph of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii and compared their physicochemical properties with a previously described lectin (MrL). High-molecular weight MrL aggregates (MrL-I) lack hemagglutinating activity and showed bands of 62.1, 67.1 and 81.4 kDa, whereas MrL-III, which corresponds to MrL, showed hemagglutinating activity and is constituted by a single 9.6-kDa band as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis. MrL-I and MrL-III showed similar amino acid composition but different carbohydrates concentration. Edman degradation indicated NH2-terminal sequence of five amino acids for the 9.6-kDa MrL-III (DVPLL/A) and eleven for the main 81.4-kDa band identified in MrL-I (DVPLL/AXKQQQD); analysis by MALDI-TOF indicated a different tryptic pattern for MrL-I and MrL-III. MrL-I was recognized by monoclonal antibodies against MrL-III. Circular dichroism indicated that the secondary structure in both proteins is similar and contains 23% of beta-sheet and 24% of alpha-helix. Our results suggest that differential posttranslational processes that favor aggregation are involved in regulating the activity of the lectin.

A Toll-like receptor in horseshoe crabs

Non-self-recognition of invading microbes relies on the pattern-recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from microbial cell-wall components. Insects and mammals conserve a signaling pathway of the innate immune system through cell-surface receptors called Tolls and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are an important trigger of the horseshoe crab's innate immunity to infectious microorganisms. Horseshoe crabs' granular hemocytes respond specifically to LPS stimulation, inducing the secretion of various defense molecules from the granular hemocytes. Here, we show a cDNA which we named tToll, coding for a TLR identified from hemocytes of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. tToll is most closely related to Drosophila Toll in both domain architecture and overall length. Human TLRs have been suggested to contain numerous PAMP-binding insertions located in the leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) of their ectodomains. However, the LRRs of tToll contained no obvious PAMP-binding insertions. Furthermore, tToll was non-specifically expressed in horseshoe crab tissues. These observations suggest that tToll does not function as an LPS receptor on granular hemocytes.

A serine protease zymogen functions as a pattern-recognition receptor for lipopolysaccharides

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced exocytosis of granular hemocytes is a key component of the horseshoe crab's innate immunity to infectious microorganisms; stimulation by LPS induces the secretion of various defense molecules from the granular hemocytes. Using a previously uncharacterized assay for exocytosis, we clearly show that hemocytes respond only to LPS and not to other pathogen-associated molecular patterns, such as beta-1,3-glucans and peptidoglycans. Furthermore, we show that a granular protein called factor C, an LPS-recognizing serine protease zymogen that initiates the hemolymph coagulation cascade, also exists on the hemocyte surface as a biosensor for LPS. Our data demonstrate that the proteolytic activity of factor C is both necessary and sufficient to trigger exocytosis through a heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein-mediating signaling pathway. Exocytosis of hemocytes was not induced by thrombin, but it was induced by hexapeptides corresponding to the tethered ligands of protease-activated G protein-coupled receptors (PARs). This finding suggested the presence of a PAR-like receptor on the hemocyte surface. We conclude that the serine protease zymogen on the hemocyte surface functions as a pattern-recognition protein for LPS.

Molecular basis of non-self recognition by the horseshoe crab tachylectins

The self/non-self discrimination by innate immunity through simple ligands universally expressed both on pathogens and hosts, such as monosaccharides and acetyl group, depends on the density or clustering patterns of the ligands. The specific recognition by the horseshoe crab tachylectins with a propeller-like fold or a propeller-like oligomeric arrangement is reinforced by the short distance between the individual binding sites that interact with pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). There is virtually no conformational change in the main or side chains of tachylectins upon binding with the ligands. This low structural flexibility of the propeller structures must be very important for specific interaction with PAMPs. Mammalian lectins, such as mannose-binding lectin and ficolins, trigger complement activation through the lectin pathway in the form of opsonins. However, tachylectins have no effector collagenous domains and no lectin-associated serine proteases found in the mammalian lectins. Furthermore, no complement-like proteins have been found in horseshoe crabs, except for alpha(2)-macroglobulin. The mystery of the molecular mechanism of the scavenging pathway of pathogens in horseshoe crabs remains to be solved.

The molecular basis of innate immunity in the horseshoe crab

During the past two decades, the molecular structures and functions have been established for various defense molecules, using horseshoe crab (Limulus) as a model animal. These defense molecules include clotting factors, proteinase inhibitors, lectins, antimicrobial peptides and other humoral factors found mainly in the hemolymph. These components of the cellular and humoral systems, which together comprise innate immunity, defend horseshoe crab effectively from invading microbes.

Biochemical properties and cDNa cloning of two new lectins from the plasma of Tachypleus tridentatus: Tachypleus plasma lectin 1 and 2+

A Sepharose CL-4B-binding protein, Tachypleus plasma lectin 1 (TPL-1), and a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein, Tachypleus plasma lectin-2 (TPL-2), have been isolated from the plasma of Tachypleus tridentatus and biochemically characterized. Each protein is coded by a homologous family of multigenes. TPL-1 binds to Sepharose CL-4B and was eluted with buffer containing 0.4 m GlcNAc. The deduced amino acid sequence of TPL-1 consisted of 232 amino acids with an N-glycosylation site, Asn-Gly-Ser at residues 74-76. It shares a 65% sequence identity and similar internal repeats of about 20 amino acid motifs with tachylectin-1. Tachylectin-1 was identified as a lipopolysaccharide-agarose binding nonglycosylated protein from the amebocytes of T. tridentatus. TPL-2 was eluted from the LPS-Sepharose CL-4B affinity column in buffer containing 0.4 m GlcNAc and 2 m KCl. The deduced amino acid sequence of TPL-2 consisted of 128 amino acids with an N-glycosylation site, Asn-Cys-Thr, at positions 3-5. It shares an 80% sequence identity with tachylectin-3, isolated from the amebocytes of T. tridentatus. TPL-2 purified by LPS-affinity column from the plasma predominantly exists as a dimer of a glycoprotein with an apparent molecular mass of 36 kDa. Tachylectin-3 is an intracellular nonglycosylated protein that also exists as a dimer in solution with an apparent molecular mass of 29 kDa. It recognizes Gram-negative bacteria through the 0-antigen of LPS. Western blot analyses showed that, in the plasma, TPL-1 and TPL-2 exist predominantly as oligomers with molecular masses above 60 kDa. They both bind to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and this binding is inhibited by GlcNAc. Possible binding site of TPL-1 and TPL-2 to the bacteria could be at the NAc moiety of GlcNAc-MurNAc of the peptidoglycan. The physiological function of TPL-1 and TPL-2 is most likely related to their ability to form a cluster of interlocking molecules to immobilize and entrap invading organisms.

Isolation and characterization of proteins that bind to galactose, lipopolysaccharide of Escherichia coli, and protein A of Staphylococcus aureus from the hemolymph of Tachypleus tridentatus

In this study, we report the isolation and characterization of three novel hemolymph proteins that are believed to be involved in the innate immune response of horseshoe crabs, Tachypleus tridentatus. They include two closely related proteins, one that binds to the protein A of Staphylococcus aureus (PAP) and another that binds to the lipopolysaccharide of Escherichia coli (LBP). PAP binds specifically to staphylococcal protein A (SpA) with a K(D) of 3.86 x 10(-5) M, whereas LBP binds to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with a K(D) of 1.03 x 10(-6) M. Both PAP and LBP are glycoproteins with an apparent molecular mass of about 40 kDa. N-terminal sequences of PAP and LBP showed 61.9 and 72.2% identity, respectively, to tachylectin-3, a lectin isolated from the amebocyte of T. tridentatus, previously characterized by its affinity to the O-antigen of LPS and blood group A antigen (Muta, T., and Iwanaga, S. (1996) Curr. Opin. Immunol. 8, 41-47). The third protein, a galactose-binding protein (GBP), was found to bind tightly to Sepharose CL-4B and could only be eluted from the column matrix with chaotropic agents, such as 4 M urea or 2 M guanidine hydrochloride. Further analysis indicated that GBP binds to D(+)-galactose with a K(D) of 2.47 x 10(-7) M. N-terminal sequence analysis showed that GBP shared a 50% identity with lectin L-6, identified in the granules of amebocyte of T. tridentatus. (Gokudan, S., Muta, T., Tsuda, R., Koori, K., Kawahara, T., Seki, N., Mizunoe, Y., Wai, S. N. , Iwanaga, S., and Kawabata, S. (1999) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 96, 10086-10091). Lectin-L6 and tachylectin-3 are nonglycosylated intracellular proteins with about half the molecular mass of PAP, LBP, and GBP. GBP also binds to PAP and LBP with K(D) values of 1.25 x 10(-7) and 1.43 x 10(-8) M, respectively, and this binding is enhanced about 10-fold upon the addition of SpA and LPS to form the GBP.PAP.SpA and GBP.LBP.LPS complexes, respectively.

A lipopolysaccharide- and beta-1,3-glucan-binding protein from hemocytes of the freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. Purification, characterization, and cDNA cloning

A lipopolysaccharide- and beta-1,3-glucan-binding protein (LGBP) was isolated and characterized from blood cells (hemocytes) of the freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. The LGBP was purified by chromatography on Blue-Sepharose and phenyl-Sepharose, followed by Sephacryl S-200. The LGBP has a molecular mass of 36 kDa and 40 kDa on 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under reducing and nonreducing conditions, respectively. The calculated mass of LGBP is 39,492 Da, which corresponds to the native size of LGBP; the estimated pI of the mature LGBP is 5.80. LGBP has binding activity to lipopolysaccharides as well as to beta-1,3-glucans such as laminarin and curdlan, but peptidoglycan could not bind to LGBP. Cloning and sequencing of LGBP showed significant homology with several putative Gram-negative bacteria-binding proteins and beta-1, 3-glucanases. Interestingly, LGBP also has a structure and functions similar to those of the coelomic cytolytic factor-1, a lipopolysaccharide- and glucan-binding protein from the earthworm Eisenia foetida. To evaluate the involvement of LGBP in the prophenoloxidase (proPO) activating system, a polyclonal antibody against LGBP was made and used for the inhibition of phenoloxidase (PO) activity triggered by the beta-1,3-glucan laminarin in the hemocyte lysate of crayfish. The PO activity was blocked completely by the anti-LGBP antibody. Moreover, the PO activity could be recovered by the addition of purified LGBP. These results suggest that the 36-kDa LGBP plays a role in the activation of the proPO activating system in crayfish and thus seems to play an important role in the innate immune system of crayfish.

Purification, characterization, and amino acid sequence of an embryonic lectin in perivitelline fluid of the horseshoe crab

Hemagglutinating activity in perivitelline fluid of the horseshoe crab embryo dramatically increases during the third and fourth molt of the embryo. A 27-kDa lectin, which we named tachylectin-P (TL-P), was newly identified in perivitelline fluid of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. TL-P preferentially agglutinated human A-type erythrocytes, and the activity was inhibited by N-acetyl group-containing monosaccharides. The amino acid sequence analysis indicated that TL-P is almost structurally the same as a hemocyte-derived lectin with no hemagglutinating activity, tachylectin-1 (TL-1), and that 218 out of 221 amino acid residues in total were conserved between the two lectins. Despite the high sequence similarity, biological and biochemical characteristics of TL-P differed from those of TL-1: (i) unlike TL-1, TL-P agglutinates several animal-derived erythrocytes; (ii) unlike TL-1, TL-P has no significant affinity for bacterial lipopolysaccharides or antibacterial activity; (iii) Based on apparent molecular masses determined by gel filtration, TL-P forms a dimer in solution, while TL-1 is present as a monomer; (iv) and TL-P interacts with endogenous proteins of 13 and 14 kDa present in the perivitelline fluid; however, neither has any affinity for TL-1. We propose that TL-P may have an important role in completing embryonic development by interacting with endogenous glycoproteins or N-acetylhexosamines.

Horseshoe crab hemocyte-derived antimicrobial polypeptides, tachystatins, with sequence similarity to spider neurotoxins

Antimicrobial peptides, named tachystatins A, B, and C, were identified from hemocytes of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. Tachystatins exhibited a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and fungi. Of these tachystatins, tachystatin C was most effective. Tachystatin A is homologous to tachystatin B, but tachystatin C has no significant sequence similarity to tachystatins A and B. Tachystatins A and B showed sequence similarity to omega-agatoxin-IVA of funnel web spider venom, a potent blocker of voltage-dependent calcium channels. However, they exhibited no blocking activity of the P-type calcium channel in rat Purkinje cells. Tachystatin C also showed sequence similarity to several insecticidal neurotoxins of spider venoms. Tachystatins A, B, and C bound significantly to chitin. A causal relationship was observed between chitin binding activity and antifungal activity. Tachystatins caused morphological changes against a budding yeast, and tachystatin C had a strong cell lysis activity. The septum between mother cell and bud, a chitin-rich region, was stained by fluorescence-labeled tachystatin C, suggesting that the primary recognizing substance on the cell wall is chitin. As horseshoe crab is a close relative of the spider, tachystatins and spider neurotoxins may have evolved from a common ancestral peptide, with adaptive functions.

Horseshoe crab acetyl group-recognizing lectins involved in innate immunity are structurally related to fibrinogen

We have characterized and cloned newly isolated lectins from hemolymph plasma of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus, which we named tachylectins 5A and 5B (TLs-5). TLs-5 agglutinated all types of human erythrocytes and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. TLs-5 specifically recognize acetyl group-containing substances including noncarbohydrates; the acetyl group is required and is sufficient for recognition. TLs-5 enhanced the antimicrobial activity of a horseshoe crab-derived big defensin. cDNA sequences of TLs-5 indicated that they consist of a short N-terminal Cys-containing segment and a C-terminal fibrinogen-like domain with the highest sequence identity (51%) to that of mammalian ficolins. TLs-5, however, lack the collagenous domain found in a kind of "bouquet arrangement" of ficolins and collectins. Electron microscopy revealed that TLs-5 form two- to four-bladed propeller structures. The horseshoe crab is equipped with a unique functional homologue of vertebrate fibrinogen, coagulogen, as the target protein of the clotting cascade. Our observations clearly show that the horseshoe crab has fibrinogen-related molecules in hemolymph plasma and that they function as nonself-recognizing lectins. An ancestor of fibrinogen may have functioned as a nonself-recognizing protein.

Tachylectin-2: crystal structure of a specific GlcNAc/GalNAc-binding lectin involved in the innate immunity host defense of the Japanese horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus

Tachylectin-2, isolated from large granules of the hemocytes of the Japanese horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus), is a 236 amino acid protein belonging to the lectins. It binds specifically to N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylgalactosamine and is a part of the innate immunity host defense system of the horseshoe crab. The X-ray structure of tachylectin-2 was solved at 2.0 A resolution by the multiple isomorphous replacement method and this molecular model was employed to solve the X-ray structure of the complex with N-acetylglucosamine. Tachylectin-2 is the first protein displaying a five-bladed beta-propeller structure. Five four-stranded antiparallel beta-sheets of W-like topology are arranged around a central water-filled tunnel, with the water molecules arranged as a pentagonal dodecahedron. Tachylectin-2 exhibits five virtually identical binding sites, one in each beta-sheet. The binding sites are located between adjacent beta-sheets and are made by a large loop between the outermost strands of the beta-sheets and the connecting segment from the previous beta-sheet. The high number of five binding sites within the single polypeptide chain strongly suggests the recognition of carbohydrate surface structures of pathogens with a fairly high ligand density. Thus, tachylectin-2 employs strict specificity for certain N-acetyl sugars as well as the surface ligand density for self/non-self recognition.