1
|
Pasini I, Ruprecht C, Osswald U, Bittmann A, Maltrovsky L, Romanò C, Clausen MH, Pfrengle F. Chemical synthesis of natural and azido-modified UDP-rhamnose and -arabinofuranose for glycan array-based characterization of plant glycosyltransferases. Chem Commun (Camb) 2024; 60:9368-9371. [PMID: 39135501 DOI: 10.1039/d4cc02095b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
Chemical syntheses of UDP-rhamnose and UDP-arabinofuranose and respective azido-modified analogues are reported. The prepared substrates are useful for the glycan array-based analysis of glycosyltransferases, as exemplified with the plant cell wall-biosynthetic enzymes PvXAT3, AtRRT4 and PtRRT5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Pasini
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, BOKU University, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Colin Ruprecht
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, BOKU University, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Uwe Osswald
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, BOKU University, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Andreas Bittmann
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, BOKU University, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Lina Maltrovsky
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, BOKU University, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Cecilia Romanò
- Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 207, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mads H Clausen
- Center for Nanomedicine and Theranostics, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 207, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Fabian Pfrengle
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, BOKU University, Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Harnagel AP, Sheshova M, Zheng M, Zheng M, Skorupinska-Tudek K, Swiezewska E, Lupoli TJ. Preference of Bacterial Rhamnosyltransferases for 6-Deoxysugars Reveals a Strategy To Deplete O-Antigens. J Am Chem Soc 2023. [PMID: 37437030 PMCID: PMC10375533 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c03005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria synthesize hundreds of bacteria-specific or "rare" sugars that are absent in mammalian cells and enriched in 6-deoxy monosaccharides such as l-rhamnose (l-Rha). Across bacteria, l-Rha is incorporated into glycans by rhamnosyltransferases (RTs) that couple nucleotide sugar substrates (donors) to target biomolecules (acceptors). Since l-Rha is required for the biosynthesis of bacterial glycans involved in survival or host infection, RTs represent potential antibiotic or antivirulence targets. However, purified RTs and their unique bacterial sugar substrates have been difficult to obtain. Here, we use synthetic nucleotide rare sugar and glycolipid analogs to examine substrate recognition by three RTs that produce cell envelope components in diverse species, including a known pathogen. We find that bacterial RTs prefer pyrimidine nucleotide-linked 6-deoxysugars, not those containing a C6-hydroxyl, as donors. While glycolipid acceptors must contain a lipid, isoprenoid chain length, and stereochemistry can vary. Based on these observations, we demonstrate that a 6-deoxysugar transition state analog inhibits an RT in vitro and reduces levels of RT-dependent O-antigen polysaccharides in Gram-negative cells. As O-antigens are virulence factors, bacteria-specific sugar transferase inhibition represents a novel strategy to prevent bacterial infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexa P Harnagel
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Mia Sheshova
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Meng Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | - Maggie Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| | | | - Ewa Swiezewska
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, 02-106, Poland
| | - Tania J Lupoli
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Reed J, Orme A, El-Demerdash A, Owen C, Martin LBB, Misra RC, Kikuchi S, Rejzek M, Martin AC, Harkess A, Leebens-Mack J, Louveau T, Stephenson MJ, Osbourn A. Elucidation of the pathway for biosynthesis of saponin adjuvants from the soapbark tree. Science 2023; 379:1252-1264. [PMID: 36952412 DOI: 10.1126/science.adf3727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
The Chilean soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria) produces soap-like molecules called QS saponins that are important vaccine adjuvants. These highly valuable compounds are sourced by extraction from the bark, and their biosynthetic pathway is unknown. Here, we sequenced the Q. saponaria genome. Through genome mining and combinatorial expression in tobacco, we identified 16 pathway enzymes that together enable the production of advanced QS pathway intermediates that represent a bridgehead for adjuvant bioengineering. We further identified the enzymes needed to make QS-7, a saponin with excellent therapeutic properties and low toxicity that is present in low abundance in Q. saponaria bark extract. Our results enable the production of Q. saponaria vaccine adjuvants in tobacco and open the way for new routes to access and engineer natural and new-to-nature immunostimulants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Reed
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Anastasia Orme
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | | | - Charlotte Owen
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | | | - Rajesh C Misra
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Shingo Kikuchi
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Martin Rejzek
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | | | - Alex Harkess
- Department of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL 35806, USA
| | - Jim Leebens-Mack
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Thomas Louveau
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | | | - Anne Osbourn
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
The L-Rhamnose Biosynthetic Pathway in Trichomonas vaginalis: Identification and Characterization of UDP-D-Glucose 4,6-dehydratase. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314587. [PMID: 36498914 PMCID: PMC9741107 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichomonas vaginalis is the causative agent of one of the most widespread sexually transmitted diseases in the world. The adhesion of the parasite to the vaginal epithelial cells is mediated by specific proteins and by a complex glycan structure, the lipoglycan (TvLG), which covers the pathogen surface. L-rhamnose is an important component of TvLG, comprising up to 40% of the monosaccharides. Thus, the inhibition of its production could lead to a severe alteration in the TvLG structure, making the L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway an attractive pharmacologic target. We report the identification and characterization of the first committed and limiting step of the L-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway, UDP-D-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (UGD, EC 4.2.1.76). The enzyme shows a strong preference for UDP-D-glucose compared to dTDP-D-glucose; we propose that the mechanism underlying the higher affinity for the UDP-bound substrate is mediated by the differential recognition of ribose versus the deoxyribose of the nucleotide moiety. The identification of the enzymes responsible for the following steps of the L-rhamnose pathway (epimerization and reduction) was more elusive. However, sequence analyses suggest that in T. vaginalis L-rhamnose synthesis proceeds through a mechanism different from the typical eukaryotic pathways, displaying intermediate features between the eukaryotic and prokaryotic pathways and involving separate enzymes for the epimerase and reductase activities, as observed in bacteria. Altogether, these results form the basis for a better understanding of the formation of the complex glycan structures on TvLG and the possible use of L-rhamnose biosynthetic enzymes for the development of selective inhibitors.
Collapse
|
5
|
Vogel U, Beerens K, Desmet T. Nucleotide sugar dehydratases: Structure, mechanism, substrate specificity, and application potential. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101809. [PMID: 35271853 PMCID: PMC8987622 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide sugar (NS) dehydratases play a central role in the biosynthesis of deoxy and amino sugars, which are involved in a variety of biological functions in all domains of life. Bacteria are true masters of deoxy sugar biosynthesis as they can produce a wide range of highly specialized monosaccharides. Indeed, deoxy and amino sugars play important roles in the virulence of gram-positive and gram-negative pathogenic species and are additionally involved in the biosynthesis of diverse macrolide antibiotics. The biosynthesis of deoxy sugars relies on the activity of NS dehydratases, which can be subdivided into three groups based on their structure and reaction mechanism. The best-characterized NS dehydratases are the 4,6-dehydratases that, together with the 5,6-dehydratases, belong to the NS-short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase superfamily. The other two groups are the less abundant 2,3-dehydratases that belong to the Nudix hydrolase superfamily and 3-dehydratases, which are related to aspartame aminotransferases. 4,6-Dehydratases catalyze the first step in all deoxy sugar biosynthesis pathways, converting nucleoside diphosphate hexoses to nucleoside diphosphate-4-keto-6-deoxy hexoses, which in turn are further deoxygenated by the 2,3- and 3-dehydratases to form dideoxy and trideoxy sugars. In this review, we give an overview of the NS dehydratases focusing on the comparison of their structure and reaction mechanisms, thereby highlighting common features, and investigating differences between closely related members of the same superfamilies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Vogel
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB) - Unit for Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Koen Beerens
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB) - Unit for Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Centre for Synthetic Biology (CSB) - Unit for Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tamez-Castrellón AK, van der Beek SL, López-Ramírez LA, Martínez-Duncker I, Lozoya-Pérez NE, van Sorge NM, Mora-Montes HM. Disruption of protein rhamnosylation affects the Sporothrix schenckii-host interaction. Cell Surf 2021; 7:100058. [PMID: 34308006 PMCID: PMC8258688 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2021.100058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a fungal disease caused by the members of the Sporothrix pathogenic clade, and one of the etiological agents is Sporothrix schenckii. The cell wall of this organism has been previously analyzed and thus far is known to contain an inner layer composed of chitin and β -glucans, and an outer layer of glycoproteins, which are decorated with mannose and rhamnose-containing oligosaccharides. The L-rhamnose biosynthesis pathway is common in bacteria but rare in members of the Fungi kingdom. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to disrupt this metabolic route to assess the contribution of rhamnose during the S. schenckii-host interaction. We identified and silenced in S. schenckii a functional ortholog of the bacterial rmlD gene, which encodes for an essential reductase for the synthesis of nucleotide-activated L-rhamnose. RmlD silencing did not affect fungal growth or morphology but decreased cell wall rhamnose content. Compensatory, the β-1,3-glucan levels increased and were more exposed at the cell surface. Moreover, when incubated with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, the RmlD silenced mutants differentially stimulated cytokine production when compared with the wild-type strain, reducing TNFα and IL-6 levels and increasing IL-1 β and IL-10 production. Upon incubation with human monocyte-derived macrophages, the silenced strains were more efficiently phagocytosed than the wild-type strain. In both cases, our data suggest that rhamnose-based oligosaccharides are ligands that interact with TLR4. Finally, our findings showed that cell wall rhamnose is required for the S. schenckii virulence in the G. mellonella model of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alma K. Tamez-Castrellón
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P. 36050 Guanajuato, Gto., Mexico
| | - Samantha L. van der Beek
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Medical Microbiology, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Luz A. López-Ramírez
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P. 36050 Guanajuato, Gto., Mexico
| | - Iván Martínez-Duncker
- Laboratorio de Glicobiología Humana y Diagnóstico Molecular, Centro de Investigación en Dinámica Celular, Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Básicas y Aplicadas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca Mor. 62209, Mexico
| | - Nancy E. Lozoya-Pérez
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P. 36050 Guanajuato, Gto., Mexico
| | - Nina M. van Sorge
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Medical Microbiology, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Héctor M. Mora-Montes
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta s/n, col. Noria Alta, C.P. 36050 Guanajuato, Gto., Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gräßle F, Plugge C, Franchini P, Schink B, Schleheck D, Müller N. Pelorhabdus rhamnosifermentans gen. nov., sp. nov., a strictly anaerobic rhamnose degrader from freshwater lake sediment. Syst Appl Microbiol 2021; 44:126225. [PMID: 34198168 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2021.126225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A rhamnose-degrading bacterium, strain BoRhaAT, was isolated from profundal sediment of Lake Constance in agar dilution series with l-rhamnose as substrate and with a background lawn of Methanospirillum hungatei. The isolated strain was a motile rod that stained Gram positive. Growth was observed within a pH range of 4.0-7.5 and a temperature range of 15-30°C. Fermentation products of rhamnose or glucose were acetate, propionate, ethanol, butyrate, and 1-propanol. The G+C content was 40.6% G+C. The dominant fatty acids are C16:1ω9c, i-C13:03OH, C16:0 and C17:1ω8c with 8-21% relative abundance. Polar lipids were glycolipids, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphoaminolipid and other lipids, of which phosphatidylethanolamine was most abundant. The sequence of the 16S rRNA gene of the new isolate matches the sequence of its closest relative Anaerosporomusa subterranea to 92.4%. A comparison of the genome with this strain showed 60.2% genome-wide average amino acid identity (AAI), comparisons with other type strains showed a maximum of 62.7% AAI. Thus, the definition of a new genus is justified for which we propose the name Pelorhabdus. For strain BoRhaAT, we propose the name Pelorhabdus rhamnosifermentans gen. nov., sp. nov., with strain BoRhaAT (DSM 111565T = JCM 39158T) as the type strain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Gräßle
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; Research Training Group R3 - Resilience of Lake Ecosystems, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Caroline Plugge
- Research Training Group R3 - Resilience of Lake Ecosystems, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Paolo Franchini
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Bernhard Schink
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; Research Training Group R3 - Resilience of Lake Ecosystems, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - David Schleheck
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; Research Training Group R3 - Resilience of Lake Ecosystems, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Nicolai Müller
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; Research Training Group R3 - Resilience of Lake Ecosystems, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wagstaff BA, Zorzoli A, Dorfmueller HC. NDP-rhamnose biosynthesis and rhamnosyltransferases: building diverse glycoconjugates in nature. Biochem J 2021; 478:685-701. [PMID: 33599745 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Rhamnose is an important 6-deoxy sugar present in many natural products, glycoproteins, and structural polysaccharides. Whilst predominantly found as the l-enantiomer, instances of d-rhamnose are also found in nature, particularly in the Pseudomonads bacteria. Interestingly, rhamnose is notably absent from humans and other animals, which poses unique opportunities for drug discovery targeted towards rhamnose utilizing enzymes from pathogenic bacteria. Whilst the biosynthesis of nucleotide-activated rhamnose (NDP-rhamnose) is well studied, the study of rhamnosyltransferases that synthesize rhamnose-containing glycoconjugates is the current focus amongst the scientific community. In this review, we describe where rhamnose has been found in nature, as well as what is known about TDP-β-l-rhamnose, UDP-β-l-rhamnose, and GDP-α-d-rhamnose biosynthesis. We then focus on examples of rhamnosyltransferases that have been characterized using both in vivo and in vitro approaches from plants and bacteria, highlighting enzymes where 3D structures have been obtained. The ongoing study of rhamnose and rhamnosyltransferases, in particular in pathogenic organisms, is important to inform future drug discovery projects and vaccine development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ben A Wagstaff
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, U.K
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Azul Zorzoli
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Helge C Dorfmueller
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
The Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas (EMP) and Entner–Doudoroff (ED) pathways are considered the most abundant catabolic pathways found in microorganisms, and ED enzymes have been shown to also be widespread in cyanobacteria, algae and plants. In a large number of organisms, especially common strains used in molecular biology, these pathways account for the catabolism of glucose. The existence of pathways for other carbohydrates that are relevant to biomass utilization has been recognized as new strains have been characterized among thermophilic bacteria and Archaea that are able to transform simple polysaccharides from biomass to more complex and potentially valuable precursors for industrial microbiology. Many of the variants of the ED pathway have the key dehydratase enzyme involved in the oxidation of sugar derived from different families such as the enolase, IlvD/EDD and xylose-isomerase-like superfamilies. There are the variations in structure of proteins that have the same specificity and generally greater-than-expected substrate promiscuity. Typical biomass lignocellulose has an abundance of xylan, and four different pathways have been described, which include the Weimberg and Dahms pathways initially oxidizing xylose to xylono-gamma-lactone/xylonic acid, as well as the major xylose isomerase pathway. The recent realization that xylan constitutes a large proportion of biomass has generated interest in exploiting the compound for value-added precursors, but few chassis microorganisms can grow on xylose. Arabinose is part of lignocellulose biomass and can be metabolized with similar pathways to xylose, as well as an oxidative pathway. Like enzymes in many non-phosphorylative carbohydrate pathways, enzymes involved in L-arabinose pathways from bacteria and Archaea show metabolic and substrate promiscuity. A similar multiplicity of pathways was observed for other biomass-derived sugars such as L-rhamnose and L-fucose, but D-mannose appears to be distinct in that a non-phosphorylative version of the ED pathway has not been reported. Many bacteria and Archaea are able to grow on mannose but, as with other minor sugars, much of the information has been derived from whole cell studies with additional enzyme proteins being incorporated, and so far, only one synthetic pathway has been described. There appears to be a need for further discovery studies to clarify the general ability of many microorganisms to grow on the rarer sugars, as well as evaluation of the many gene copies displayed by marine bacteria.
Collapse
|
10
|
Beswick L, Ahmadipour S, Dolan JP, Rejzek M, Field RA, Miller GJ. Chemical and enzymatic synthesis of the alginate sugar nucleotide building block: GDP-d-mannuronic acid. Carbohydr Res 2019; 485:107819. [PMID: 31557683 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2019.107819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Beswick
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Sanaz Ahmadipour
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Jonathan P Dolan
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Martin Rejzek
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Robert A Field
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Gavin J Miller
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK.
| |
Collapse
|