Electromyographic analysis of the rider's muscles at trot

Balance performance among horseback-rider compared to non-horseback-rider women in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study

Horseback riding requires adapting to constant changes in balance conditions, maintaining equilibrium on the horse, and preventing falls. However, differences in balance performance among horseback riders and non-rider-healthy young women in Saudi Arabia have not been explored. This study investigates whether horseback-rider women would perform better on static and dynamic balance tests than non-rider women. Also, the study examined the effect of years of horseback riding on balance performance in the rider group. Twenty healthy young females participated in the study using a convenience sampling method. Ten were riders, and ten were non-riders. Static and dynamic balance tests, including the Berg balance scale (BBS), timed up and go (TUG), and unipedal stance test (UPST), was obtained from all subjects. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to compare balance performance between the horseback riders and non-riders groups. The horseback-rider group had statistically significantly higher scores on both the static and dynamic tests than non-riders: BBS test (Z = -2.537, P = .011), TUG (t = -3.889, P = .001), and unipedal stance test with the eyes open and closed (t = 14.048, t = 13.639, P = .000). Our rider sample did not show a statistically significant correlation between years of riding and balance scores. The horseback riders have greater static and dynamic balance abilities than non-riders. Further study is needed to compare the balance performance between experienced riders versus beginners among healthy adults in Saudi Arabia.

Static pelvic posture is not related to dynamic pelvic tilt or competition level in dressage riders

Static assessment and grouping of riders by competition level are prevalent in equestrian coaching practice and research. This study explored sagittal pelvic tilt in 35 competitive dressage riders to analyse the relationship between static and dynamic postures and assess the interaction of competition level. Riders were assessed using optical motion capture on a riding simulator at halt and in walk, trot, and left and right canter. Mean, minimum and maximum pelvic tilt, and range of motion (ROM) were measured as the pitch rotation of a rigid body formed by markers placed on the rider's left/right anterior and posterior superior iliac spines and sacrum, averaged over six time-normalised strides. Three key results emerged: (1) there are correlations between the rider's mean pelvic tilt in simulated walk, trot and canter, but not at halt; (2) mean pelvic tilt values are not significantly influenced by competition level (p = 0.233); and (3) the minimum and maximum pelvic tilt values illustrate individual strategies between gaits. Therefore, results from static assessment and grouping of riders by competition level should be interpreted with caution. Riders should be assessed as individuals, during dynamic riding-specific tasks, to understand their postural strategies.

Biomechanical comparison of human trunk and thigh muscle activity during walking and horseback riding activity

INTRODUCTION

Hippotherapy is a physical therapy tool that utilizes horseback riding to improve strength, coordination, gait, and balance. These benefits may be linked to similarities in kinematics and muscle activation between horseback riding and normal human gait, but this is not well represented in the literature, especially for muscle activation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between muscle activation of horseback riding and healthy human gait.

METHODS

The muscle activation of nine healthy female participants (age 18-22) were recorded during walking and horseback riding trials using surface electromyography (EMG). Muscles analyzed include rectus abdominis, lumbar erector spinae, rectus femoris and biceps femoris. Activation waveforms during walking and riding were generated, and from this average and maximum contraction magnitudes were recorded.

RESULTS

Average muscle activation was significantly greater in riding for the left (p = 0.008) and right (p = 0.04) biceps femoris. Additionally, average and maximal activation of the left erector spinae were significantly greater in riding (W = 4; critical value for W at n = 9 is 5). Remaining differences in muscle activation between walking and riding were non-significant.

DISCUSSION

Peak and average muscle activation magnitude across the gait cycle were similar for most muscle groups. When present, differences were greater in riding. Despite these similarities, EMG waveforms displayed more predictable temporal patterns in walking.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that hippotherapy could be used to elicit muscle excitation similar to that of normal gait, which may have promising implications for rehabilitation targeting gait correction.

Horseback Riding-Related Injuries in Portugal and Prevention Strategies

CONTEXT

Horse riding (HR) has gain popularity in Portugal, thereby increasing the number of related injuries. This study identifies frequently occurring injuries in Portuguese riders, the conditions under which they occur, and preventive measures.

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

We included 216 Portuguese riders practicing HR at the time of the study with ≥1 year of experience. Data were obtained from a questionnaire that characterized first and second rider injuries; we opted for a systematic method to assess the riders' injuries, in a temporal order. Questions regarding demographic data, sports-related background, systematic training workload, number and characteristics of the first 2 injuries, and the need for treatment were included in the questionnaire.

RESULTS

Most first and second injuries were musculoskeletal, occurred from falling off the horse during training, and primarily affected the lower limb. Rehabilitation was required in almost 50% of all cases. The occurrence of injury was significantly associated with the number of days of training per week, years of experience, height and weight of the rider, and practice of another sport. Riding different horses was also significantly associated with the number of injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

The most frequently occurring injuries during HR are musculoskeletal and in the extremities. Injury prevention is essential in HR, as most riders have at least one injury while practicing. Rehabilitation should involve a physiatrist and core strengthening exercises.

Static postural differences between male and female equestrian riders on a riding simulator

This study aimed to compare static posture of male and female riders on a riding simulator. Ten female and five male riders underwent a 5 min standardised exercise programme on the simulator, they were then videoed for 10 s from each the left, right, and rear views whilst stationary on the simulator. Two-dimensional kinematic analysis of the videos showed that male riders had a more neutrally positioned pelvis in the sagittal plane (median left: 6.47°, right: 5.24°) with females demonstrating a posterior pelvic tilt (L: 14.04°, R: 13.55°). Females showed significantly greater pelvic obliquity (median female: 1.99°, male: 0.73°), trunk lean (F: 1.60°, M: 0.43°), and shoulder tilt (F: 1.79°, M: 0.57°) in the frontal plane, demonstrating an overall greater postural asymmetry. Previous studies of elite riders have shown a more anteriorly rotated pelvis to be more desirable. Symmetry of riding position is favourable as it allows movements to be performed with ease and ensures even force distribution through the saddle to the horse. Male riders may therefore have a biomechanical advantage over females when it comes to maintaining a desirable riding position. This research should now be extended to study riders on the horse in motion.

A 10-Week Program of Combined Hippotherapy and Scroth's Exercises Improves Balance and Postural Asymmetries in Adolescence Idiopathic Scoliosis: A Randomized Controlled Study

Introduction: The most frequent type of spine abnormality throughout adolescence was adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). Hippotherapy improved posture, balance and gait of different musculoskeletal conditions. Therefore, this study aims to see how hippotherapy combined with Schroth exercises affected postural asymmetry and dynamic balance in AIS compared to traditional physiotherapy (Schroth exercises) alone. Materials and methods: In this randomized controlled trial, fifty-two patients with AIS (10–18 years, 37 girls and 15 boys) participated. They were arbitrarily allocated into two groups: experimental (19 female/8 male; aged 14.74 ± 1.79 years; Cobb angle 18.59 ± 2.66 degrees) and control (18 female/7 male; aged 15.04 ± 1.81 years; Cobb angle 19.32 ± 2.69 degrees) groups. Both groups received Schroth exercises for 10 weeks, three days/week. The experimental group additionally received hippotherapy training. Pre-treatment and post-treatment assessment for the scoliotic, kyphotic angle, pelvic obliquity, pelvic torsion and vertical spinal rotation and the anteroposterior, mediolateral and overall stability indices were assessed using the formetric system 4D and Biodex Balance System, respectively. Results: After intervention, both groups illustrated significant improvements in all examined variables (p < 0.05). The experimental group illustrated significant improvements in scoliotic angle, kyphotic angle, pelvic obliquity, pelvic torsion and vertical spinal rotation and the stability indices compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Conclusion: In adolescence idiopathic scoliosis, hippotherapy training combined with Schroth exercises improves posture asymmetry and balancing ability more effectively than Schroth exercises alone.

An exploration of stakeholder perceptions to inform the development of an evidence-based classification system in para dressage

In dressage, horse-rider combinations must demonstrate harmony whilst performing a test of gaits and movements, scored by judge(s) using predetermined criteria. The para dressage governing body is working towards compliance with the International Paralympic Committee's mandate for evidence-based classification, which requires a comprehensive understanding of key performance determinants. This study aimed to explore stakeholder perceptions surrounding the key determinants of, and impact of impairment on, para dressage performance. Semi-structured interviews with 30 para dressage stakeholders (athletes, classifiers, judges, coach) were analysed using the Framework method. Themes relating to the equine and human athlete were associated with overall dressage performance and discussed within the context of impairment and horse-rider partnership. Key performance determinants were summarised as the athlete's ability to maintain dynamic postural control for absorbing the horse's movement and coordinating leg, hand, and seat aids, which directly influence the horse's quality and accuracy of movements during dressage. Thus, muscular coordination, joint mobility that influences rider posture, and personality traits that influence the horse-rider partnership were considered performance determinants. These themes will inform the development of an evidence-based classification system, through the establishment of standardised, sport-specific performance measures for assessing the relationship between impairment and activity limitation in para dressage.

Review of physical fitness, physiological demands and performance characteristics of jockeys

This narrative review collates data from different equestrian disciplines, both amateur and professional, to describe the physiological demands, muscle activity and synchronicity of movement involved in jockeys riding in a race and to identify limitations within our current knowledge. A literature search was conducted in Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed and Scopus using search terms related to jockeys, equestrian riders and their physiological demands, muscle use, movement dynamics and experience. Abstracts, theses and non-peer reviewed articles were excluded from the analysis. Jockeys work at close to their physiological capacity during a race. The quasi-isometric maintenance of the jockey position requires muscular strength and endurance, specifically from the legs and the core, both to maintain their position and adapt to the movement of the horse. Synchronous movement between horse and rider requires a coordinated activation pattern of the rider’s core muscles, resulting in less work done by the horse to carry the rider, possibly leading to a competitive advantage in race riding. Reports of chronic fatigue in jockeys demonstrate poor quantification of workload and recovery. The lack of quantitative workload metrics for jockeys’ limits calculation of a threshold required to reach race riding competency and development of sport-specific training programmes. Until the sport-specific demands of race riding are quantified, the development of evidence-based sport specific and potentially performance enhancing jockey strength and conditioning programmes cannot be realised.

Rider Energy Expenditure During High Intensity Horse Activity

Despite the fact that horseback riding is a popular sport, there is little information available on horseback riding as a physical activity. The objective of this experiment was to quantify energy expenditure of participants (n=20) during three riding tests: a 45min walk-trot-canter ride (WTC), a reining pattern ride and a cutting simulation ride while wearing a telemetric gas analyzer. Total energy expenditure (tEE), mean and peak metabolic equivalents of task (MET), heart rate (HR), respiratory frequency (RF), relative oxygen consumption (relVO₂), and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were assessed. Mean MET and HR responses were greater (P < .05) for riders during the long trot portion of the WTC (6.19 ± 0.21 MET, 152.14 ± 4.4 bpm) and cutting (4.53±0.21 MET, 146.88 ± 4.4 bpm) vs the overall WTC (3.81 ± 0.16 MET, 131.5 ± 4.2 bpm). When WTC was evaluated by gait, mean MET increased as gait speed increased. As expected, METs were greater (P < .05) for riders during long trot (6.19 ± 0.21 MET) and canter (5.95 ± 0.21 MET) than during the walk (2.01 ± 0.21 MET) or trot (3.2 ± 0.21 MET). Previous horseback riding studies have not reported METs, but the peaks of all three activities in the present study were similar to METs measured during activities like jogging, playing soccer and rugby. Riders engaged in cutting and reining experienced more intense exercise in short durations, while, as expected on the basis of the duration of the activity, WTC provided a greater overall total energy expenditure. These results suggest that it is possible for health benefits to be achieved through accumulated horseback riding exercise, particularly if riding at the more intense gaits.

Relationships between the Rider's Pelvic Mobility and Balance on a Gymnastic Ball with Equestrian Skills and Effects on Horse Welfare

Riders need core stability to follow and guide the horse's movements and avoid giving unintended or conflicting signals. This study evaluated the rider's performance of exercises on a gymnastic ball with on-horse performance and indicators of stress in the horse. Twenty experienced riders were scored performing three exercises on a gymnastic ball and for quality and harmony when riding based on evaluation of video recordings in which conflict behaviours were evident. The horse's heart rate and number of conflict behaviors during the riding test and cortisol levels after completion of the test were measured. The rider's ability to roll the pelvis from side-to-side on a gymnastic ball was highly correlated with ability to circle the pelvis on the ball and with quality and harmony during riding. However, pelvic roll and riding quality and harmony showed a trend toward a negative correlation with balancing skills on the ball. It appears that the ability to actively move the pelvis is more relevant to equestrian performance than static balancing skill. Horses ridden by riders with better pelvic mobility and control showed significantly fewer conflict behaviors. On the contrary, high scores for balancing on the gymnastic ball were negatively correlated with the horses' working heart rates, suggesting a less energetic performance. Pelvic control and mobility may be predictive for equestrian skills and riding harmony.

A scoping review of determinants of performance in dressage

As a first step in achieving an evidence-based classification system for the sport of Para Dressage, there is a clear need to define elite dressage performance. Previous studies have attempted to quantify performance with able-bodied riders using scientific methods; however, definitive measures have yet to be established for the horse and/or the rider. This may be, in part, due to the variety of movements and gaits that are found within a dressage test and also due to the complexity of the horse-rider partnership. The aim of this review is therefore to identify objective measurements of horse performance in dressage and the functional abilities of the rider that may influence them to achieve higher scores. Five databases (SportDiscuss, CINAHL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, VetMed) were systematically searched from 1980 to May 2018. Studies were included if they fulfilled the following criteria: (1) English language; (2) employ objective, quantitative outcome measures for describing equine and human performance in dressage; (3) describe objective measures of superior horse performance using between-subject comparisons and/or relating outcome measures to competitive scoring methods; (4) describe demands of dressage using objective physiological and/or biomechanical measures from human athletes and/or how these demands are translated into superior performance. In total, 773 articles were identified. Title and abstract screening resulted in 155 articles that met the eligibility criteria, 97 were excluded during the full screening of articles, leaving 58 included articles (14 horse, 44 rider) involving 311 equine and 584 able-bodied human participants. Mean ± sd (%) quality scores were 63.5 ± 15.3 and 72.7 ± 14.7 for the equine and human articles respectively. Significant objective measures of horse performance (n = 12 articles) were grouped into themes and separated by gait/movement. A range of temporal variables that indicated superior performance were found in all gaits/movements. For the rider, n = 5 articles reported variables that identified significant differences in skill level, which included the postural position and ROM of the rider's pelvis, trunk, knee and head. The timing of rider pelvic and trunk motion in relation to the movement of the horse emerged as an important indicator of rider influence. As temporal variables in the horse are consistently linked to superior performance it could be surmised that better overall dressage performance requires minimal disruption from the rider whilst the horse maintains a specific gait/movement. Achieving the gait/movement in the first place depends upon the intrinsic characteristics of the horse, the level of training achieved and the ability of the rider to apply the correct aid. The information from this model will be used to develop an empirical study to test the relative strength of association between impairment and performance in able-bodied and Para Dressage riders.

Effects of strength vs. endurance training and their combination on physical performance characteristics in female horseback riders

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of strength (S), endurance (E) and concurrent strength and endurance (SE) training on neuromuscular and cardiorespiratory characteristics during the 12-week volume-equated protocols in female horseback riders.

METHODS

Subjects (N.=44) (29.4±8.9 yrs) were assigned to S (N.=11), E (N.=11), SE (N.=13) and control (C) (N.=9) groups. Training consisted of progressive S, E or SE training 3x/week and riding exercise 4-6x/week. The measurements included maximal isometric bilateral leg press force (MVCLP) and EMG of VL and BF muscles, rapid isometric force production (0-500ms), maximal force of trunk extensor/flexors (MVCE/MVCF), countermovement-jump (CMJ), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), cycling-time (Timemax), blood lactate (L) and heart rate (HR) in the bicycle-ergometer test.

RESULTS

Only group S showed significant increases of 9% in MVCLP (P<0.01) and 3% in MVCE (P<0.05) forces. None of the groups showed significant increases in CMJ, rapid isometric force production or EMG. Timemax in the ergometer test increased significantly in S (P<0.05), SE (P<0.05) and E (P<0.01) with significant increases in VO2max in E (P<0.05) and SE (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The present strength-training program led to the significant gain in maximal strength in S but not in SE, maybe due to some interference effects produced by the actual endurance training and riding related endurance training. All groups increased significantly Timemax but VO2max increased only in E and SE. It would be useful for female horseback riders to perform combined SE training and to perform S training periodically to insure gains in strength, when needed.

Rein Tension in Transitions and Halts during Equestrian Dressage Training

Simple Summary

In the equestrian dressage discipline, the transitions (changes) between gaits and into halts, occur often in riding sessions. Rein tension before, during and after the transitions between gaits, and the transitions into halts were studied. The vertical motion data for the horse’s head and croup, and rein tension data were collected from six professional riders, each riding three of their own horses during normal training sessions. The horse training levels varied from basic to advanced. The activities during the sessions were categorised into gaits, transitions between gaits and into halts based on video evaluation. The transitions were categorised according to whether they had intermediate steps that were not characteristic of the preceding or the following gait. The rein tension just before the transition was strongly related to rein tension during the transitions. There was slightly lower tension during the upward transitions than during the downward transitions. There was no difference in rein tension depending on whether intermediate steps were present or not. The left rein tension was generally lower than the right rein tension. The rein tension associated with the transitions and halts varied substantially between riders and also the horses. This information is useful for trainers seeking to understand the rein tension patterns associated with transitions.

Abstract

In dressage, the performance of transitions between gaits and halts is an integral part of riding sessions. The study aimed to evaluate rein tension before, during and after the transitions between different gaits and the transitions into halts. The kinematic (inertial measurement units) data for the head and croup, and rein tension data, were collected (128 Hz) from six professional riders each riding three of their own horses, training levels varying from basic to advanced, during normal training sessions. The activities were categorised into gaits, halts and transitions based on video evaluation. The transitions were categorised as without (type 1) or with (type 2) intermediate steps that are not normally present in the gaits preceding or following the transition. The differences in the median rein tension before/during/after transitions, between the types and left/right reins were analysed in mixed models. The rein tension just before the transition was the strongest determinant of tension during the transition. The rein tension was slightly lower during upward transitions compared to downward transitions, reflecting the pattern of the preceding gait. Type 1 and 2 downward transitions were not different regarding rein tension. The left rein tension was lower than right rein tension. The rein tension associated with the transitions and halts varied substantially between riders and horses. The generally strong association of the gaits and their inherent biomechanics with rein tension should be taken into account when riding transitions and halts.

Physical fitness profile in female horseback riders

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the present study was to examine the levels of endurance and neuromuscular performance variables in female horseback riders.

METHODS

52 female Finnish riders were involved (age 29.4±8.9 yrs, height 1.68±0.06 m, weight 67.5±10.0 kg), 19 show-jumping riders (SJ) and 33 eventing riders (E), riding-time minimum of 4 times/week, jumping level of minimum 1.06±0.11m. The measurements were maximal bilateral isometric leg press force (MVCLP), maximal unilateral isometric knee extension (MVCKE) and flexion forces (MVCKF), countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal isometric force of the trunk extensor and flexor muscles (MVCE, MVCF), weight distribution of the body (WD), handgrip strength (HGS), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), lactate threshold (L) and heart rate (HR).

RESULTS

Mean force in MVCLP was 1887(±455) N, MVCKE right/left 633(±134)/628(±138) N and MVCKF right/left 420(±79)/411(±74) N, respectively. CMJ height was 19.8(±3.9) cm and trunk forces in MVCE 51.2(±13.7) kg and MVCF 61.3(±11.4) kg. Mean WD in the right/left side was 50.5(±2.2)/49.5(±2.2) % and mean HGS of the right/left hand 39.9(±5.1)/39.2(±4.9) kg, respectively. Mean VO2max in the cycle ergometer test was 32.1(±4.5) mL/kg/min, HRmax 184.5(±9.6) beat/min, timemax to exhaustion 18.50(±2.50) min and Lmax 10.2(±2.1) mmol/L.

CONCLUSIONS

SJ and E groups did not differ significantly from each other in any of the variables. MVCLP, MVCE and MVCF were at about the same level but VO2max somewhat below compared to non-athletic Finnish women of the same age. It would seem that the present female riders would obtain benefits from additional strength training for both maximal and explosive strength gains.

Balance control during stance - A comparison between horseback riding athletes and non-athletes

Horseback riding requires the ability to adapt to changes in balance conditions, to maintain equilibrium on the horse and to prevent falls. Postural adaptation involves specific sensorimotor processes integrating visual information and somesthesic information. The objective of this study was to examine this multisensorial integration on postural control, especially the use of visual and plantar information in static (stable) and dynamic (unstable) postures, among a group of expert horse rider women (n = 10) and a group of non-athlete women (n = 12). Postural control was evaluated through the center of pressure measured with a force platform on stable and unstable supports, with the eyes open and the eyes closed, and with the presence of foam on the support or not. Results showed that expert horse rider women had a better postural stability with unstable support in the mediolateral axis compared to non-athletes. Moreover, on the anteroposterior axis, expert horse riders were less visual dependent and more stable in the presence of foam. Results suggested that horseback riding could help developing particular proprioceptive abilities on standing posture as well as better postural muscle tone during particular bipodal dynamic perturbations. These outcomes provide new insights into horseback riding assets and methodological clues to assess the impact of sport practice.

Physical fitness habits and perceptions of equestrian riders

Recent research in equestrian sport has shifted focus to consider the rider themselves as more of an athlete and the physiological demands of the sport on the rider have thus been quantified. This study aimed to identify the fitness habits and perceptions of equestrian riders competing across the three Olympic disciplines of dressage, show jumping and eventing. A 15 question online questionnaire was distributed to gain quantitative data and yielded 299 useable responses. Overall 98.3% of those surveyed agreed that rider fitness had an impact on performance, however only 56.9% considered themselves to be athletically fit and only 63.88% took part in any form of cross training. Affiliated competitors rode for a greater number of hours per week and considered themselves to be more athletically fit than their unaffiliated counterparts, despite not taking part in any more off horse (cross) training. Previous studies have indicated that ridden only exercise programmes are ineffective in increasing aerobic fitness in equestrian athletes and have highlighted the benefits of cross training. These findings demonstrate that these messages have not been accepted by the general population within the sport and further work is needed to communicate the importance of cross training to riders.

A preliminary study to investigate the prevalence of pain in international event riders during competition, in the United Kingdom

The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence of riders at the international levels in eventing, competing with pain, the location of their pain, factors affecting their pain and whether they perceived this pain to have an effect on their performance. 331 questionnaires were completed by international event riders (FEI CCI*, CCI**, CIC***) at the Hartpury International Horse Trials, UK, to establish the prevalence of riders competing with pain. 96% of international event riders competed while experiencing pain, 76% of riders stated that this pain was in the neck, upper back or shoulders. All female riders reported pain, giving a significant correlation between gender and pain (X=-0.479, P=0.006). 55% of riders felt their pain affected their riding performance, giving an odds ratio of 1.14, compared to those riders who felt their pain did not effect their performance. Pain was perceived to influence performance by affecting fatigue, their concentration, and anxiety levels. 96% of riders reporting pain used medication to alleviate their symptoms. This high incidence of international event riders who compete with pain, particularly back pain, could be problematic given the longevity of a rider’s career, which can span over four decades and could potentially increase the risk of a serious or fatal fall in the cross-country phase. This research reports rider’s perceptions and self-reported pain and management options, which may affect the data. Further research is needed to establish the causes of back pain and appropriate management strategies.

Equine Exercise in Younger and Older Adults: Simulated Versus Real Horseback Riding

Horseback riding is an effective exercise for improving postural control and balance. To reduce costs and improve accessibility, simulated horseback riding has been developed; but no differential effects of simulated and real horseback riding on muscle activation patterns in older adults have been studied. Thus, we compared muscle activation patterns for older and younger adults engaged in real and simulated horseback riding exercises, using surface electromyography recordings of the erector spinae, rectus abdominis, internal oblique abdominis, and rectus femoris muscles. We recorded muscle activity for three riding patterns: walk, slow trot, and fast trot. Muscle activation was uniformly higher for simulated (vs. real) horseback riding and increased from the walking pattern through slow and fast trot. There was no age effect, but among older participants, muscle activation was higher for simulated (vs. real) horseback riding across all gait types. Simulated and real riding produced a similar pattern of muscle activation of the thigh and trunk. These results demonstrate that simulated horseback riding can be an effective alternative to actual riding for increasing trunk and thigh muscle activation and improving postural control and balance, perhaps especially among older adults.

A preliminary study to investigate the prevalence of pain in elite dressage riders during competition in the United Kingdom

Equestrianism is more dangerous than many sports including motorcycle riding, skiing, football, and rugby with one in five equestrians seriously injured during their riding career. Current research has focused on acute riding injuries but as seen in other sports over-use injuries, repetitive strain and lifestyle could aggravate symptoms causing chronic pain. An elite rider suffering from pain may still choose to compete with pain due to the pressures from sponsors and owners and the need for competition success. The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence of riders at the elite level competing with pain, and whether they perceived this pain to have a negative effect on their performance. A quantitative approach was used due to the experimental nature of the study. Fifty questionnaires were distributed to elite dressage riders (British Dressage Group 3 and above) at the Festival of Dressage, Hartpury College to establish the prevalence of riders competing with pain. 74% of elite dressage riders competed while experiencing pain, 62% of this pain was classed as chronic and 76% of riders stated that this pain was in the low back. Over half (51%) relieved the symptoms of pain by using over the counter pain medication. There was a highly significant relationship between riders competing with pain and the perception that this pain affecting negatively on performance (χ2=16.216a, df=1, P=0.001). This high incidence of elite dressage riders who compete with pain, particularly lower back pain (LBP), could be problematic given the longevity of a rider’s career which can span over four decades. This research reports rider’s perceptions and self-reported pain and management options, which may affect the data. Further research is needed to establish the causes of back pain and appropriate management strategies.

Head Stability and Head-Trunk Coordination in Horseback Riders: The Contribution of Visual Information According to Expertise

Maintaining equilibrium while riding a horse is a challenging task that involves complex sensorimotor processes. We evaluated the relative contribution of visual information (static or dynamic) to horseback riders' postural stability (measured from the variability of segment position in space) and the coordination modes they adopted to regulate balance according to their level of expertise. Riders' perceptual typologies and their possible relation to postural stability were also assessed. Our main assumption was that the contribution of visual information to postural control would be reduced among expert riders in favor of vestibular and somesthetic reliance. Twelve Professional riders and 13 Club riders rode an equestrian simulator at a gallop under four visual conditions: (1) with the projection of a simulated scene reproducing what a rider sees in the real context of a ride in an outdoor arena, (2) under stroboscopic illumination, preventing access to dynamic visual cues, (3) in normal lighting but without the projected scene (i.e., without the visual consequences of displacement) and (4) with no visual cues. The variability of the position of the head, upper trunk and lower trunk was measured along the anteroposterior (AP), mediolateral (ML), and vertical (V) axes. We computed discrete relative phase to assess the coordination between pairs of segments in the anteroposterior axis. Visual field dependence-independence was evaluated using the Rod and Frame Test (RFT). The results showed that the Professional riders exhibited greater overall postural stability than the Club riders, revealed mainly in the AP axis. In particular, head variability was lower in the Professional riders than in the Club riders in visually altered conditions, suggesting a greater ability to use vestibular and somesthetic information according to task constraints with expertise. In accordance with this result, RFT perceptual scores revealed that the Professional riders were less dependent on the visual field than were the Club riders. Finally, the Professional riders exhibited specific coordination modes that, unlike the Club riders, departed from pure in-phase and anti-phase patterns and depended on visual conditions. The present findings provide evidence of major differences in the sensorimotor processes contributing to postural control with expertise in horseback riding.

Postural changes and their effects in elite riders when actively influencing the horse versus sitting passively at trot

The objectives were to compare sagittal plane posture of the pelvis, trunk and head of elite dressage riders when they ride actively to train the horse versus sitting passively and following the horses’ movements at trot, and to evaluate the effects of these changes in rider posture on load distribution on the horse’s back. Synchronised motion capture and saddle mat data of seven elite dressage riders were used to measure minimal and maximal angles and range of motion (ROM) for the pelvic, trunk and head segments, the angle between pelvis and trunk segments, phase-shift between pitching motions of pelvis and trunk, and pelvic translation relative to the saddle. Non-parametric statistical tests compared variables between the two rider postures. In the passive rider posture the pelvis, trunk and head showed two pitching cycles per stride. Maximal posterior and anterior pelvic rotation occurred, respectively, early and late in the horse’s diagonal stance phase. Compared with pelvic movements, trunk movements were slightly delayed and head movements were out-of-phase. In the active rider posture the pelvis and trunk pitched further posteriorly throughout the stride. Most of the riders showed similar sagittal plane movements of the axial body segments but with some notable individual variations.

Stride-related rein tension patterns in walk and trot in the ridden horse

Background

The use of tack (equipment such as saddles and reins) and especially of bits because of rein tension resulting in pressure in the mouth is questioned because of welfare concerns. We hypothesised that rein tension patterns in walk and trot reflect general gait kinematics, but are also determined by individual horse and rider effects. Six professional riders rode three familiar horses in walk and trot. Horses were equipped with rein tension meters logged by inertial measurement unit technique. Left and right rein tension data were synchronized with the gait.

Results

Stride split data (0–100 %) were analysed using mixed models technique to elucidate the left/right rein and stride percentage interaction, in relation to the exercises performed. In walk, rein tension was highest at hindlimb stance. Rein tension was highest in the suspension phase at trot, and lowest during the stance phase. In rising trot there was a significant difference between the two midstance phases, but not in sitting trot. When turning in trot there was a significant statistical association with the gait pattern with the tension being highest in the inside rein when the horse was on the outer fore-inner hindlimb diagonal.

Conclusions

Substantial between-rider variation was demonstrated in walk and trot and between-horse variation in walk. Biphasic rein tensions patterns during the stride were found mainly in trot.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13028-015-0182-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The feasibility of an 8-week, home-based isometric strength-training program for improving dressage test performance in equestrian athletes

The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility of an 8-week, home-based isometric strength training program in equestrians. Also, we examined changes in muscular strength, endurance, and riding performance. 18 riders (≥1 year dressage experience, riding ≥1 h/week, otherwise untrained) completed pre-/post-muscular tests and a US Equestrian Federation Training Level Rider Test. A progressive, 3 day/week riding-specific intervention using TheraBands® was implemented. Feasibility was determined as >50% of riders completing ≥18/24 sessions of ≥2 sets/exercise of prescribed volume. Dependent samples t-tests compared pre/post composite muscular strength/endurance, and riding test scores. 55.5% of riders completed ≥75% exercise sessions. Significant improvements were observed for muscular endurance (pre 149.8±82.2, post 209.2±112.2; P=0.003), and for riding test scores (pre 57.8±7.4, post 60.8±5.1; P=0.037). Exploratory analyses revealed a significant correlation between improvements in muscular endurance and riding test score (r2=0.285, P=0.020). The intervention was feasible and produced improvements in muscular strength, endurance, and potentially in riding test performance.

Novel pulmonary rehabilitation approach in a 46-year-old female with significant decline in lung and functional status following H1N1

INTRODUCTION

Pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) is an established therapeutic intervention for improving limb muscle dysfunction, reducing morbidity and mortality in a variety of chronic lung conditions. Providers are instrumental in improving success by optimizing disease management, minimizing barriers and tailoring a program to meet the patient's goals and functional needs.

CASE REPORT

We present a case of a young woman with mild asthma who developed severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease following H1N1. She remained limited in instrumental activities of daily living following traditional PR but participated in therapeutic horseback riding with notable improvement in functional capacity and emotional well-being.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a growing body of knowledge on the benefits of PR but little is known about the physiologic and psychological benefits of other forms of exercise such as horseback riding. This case highlights the importance of individualizing care and identifies a novel area of research to be explored.

A comparison of the position of elite and non-elite riders during competitive show jumping

The purpose of this study was to compare the jumping positions of elite riders (within the top 150 of the British Showjumping rankings) with non-elites (unranked). Video footage of 10 elite and 10 non-elite riders jumping a one stride double combination (a vertical followed by a square oxer) within a 1.20 m competition was analysed. Four angles were measured: the angle between the trunk and the vertical (TRUNKvert), the hip angle (HIP), the angle of the thigh to the horizontal (THIGHhoriz) and the angle of the lower leg to the horizontal (LOWER LEGhoriz). Differences in the angles at five points throughout the double combination and the changes in angles between points were compared using Mann-Whitney U tests. The effect of fence (vertical versus oxer) within groups (elite and non-elite) was also compared. The level of significance was set at P<0.05. HIP angle was significantly smaller on approach to the vertical (P=0.019) and significantly greater when approaching the oxer (P=0.001) for elite riders compared to non-elites. During approach to the oxer compared to the vertical elites had a greater HIP angle (P=0.007), whereas non-elites had smaller HIP (P=0.005) and THIGHhoriz (P=0.005) angles. During suspension, non-elite riders had a greater HIP (P=0.01) over the vertical and smaller LOWER LEGhoriz angle over the oxer (P=0.028) than elite riders. There were significant differences in change in HIP, THIGHhoriz and LOWER LEGhoriz angles between elite and non-elite riders between approach to and suspension over the oxer (P=0.007). During suspension, only elite riders showed an effect of fence with a greater HIP angle (P=0.005) and smaller TRUNKvert angle (P=0.013) over the oxer. Key differences in angles and change in angles exist between elite and non-elite riders. This information is useful in characterising elite rider position and identifying areas of interest for future study.

Horse-rider interaction in dressage riding

In dressage riding the pelvis of the rider interacts with the horse physically. However, there is little information about the influence of riding skill on the interaction of the human pelvis with the horse. Therefore this paper aims to study the interaction between horse and rider in professional riders (PRO) and beginners (BEG). Twenty riders rode in walk, trot, and canter in an indoor riding hall with inertial sensors attached to their pelvis and to the horses' trunk. Statistical analysis of waveform parameters, qualitative interpretation of angle-angle plots, and cross-correlation of horse and rider were applied to the data. Significant differences between PRO and BEG could be found for specific waveform parameters. Over all gaits PRO kept their pelvis closer to the mid-position and further forward whereas BEG tilted their pelvis further to the right and more backwards. The coupling intensity of horse and rider revealed differences between the gaits. Furthermore phase shifts were found between PRO and BEG. This paper describes a sensor-based approach for the investigation of interactions of the human pelvis with the trunk of a horse under in-field conditions. First the results show that the riding level influences the posture of a rider and secondly that differences can be detected with contemporary available sensor technology and methods.

A systematic review of physical fitness, physiological demands and biomechanical performance in equestrian athletes

This article presents a systematic review of the literature investigating physical fitness, physiological demands and biomechanical performance in equestrian athletes. Three databases (SportsDiscus, CAB abstracts and PubMed) were searched to identify the literature. The main search term of ‘horse-riding’ was combined with eleven specific keywords (‘fitness’, ‘physiology’, ‘biomechanics’, ‘equestrian’, ‘athlete’, ‘co-ordination’, ‘heart rate’, ‘oxygen consumption’ ‘kinematic’ ‘EMG’ and ‘skill’). Exclusion criteria were: conference proceedings, abstracts, theses, and non-peer reviewed articles. Subsequently, 15 peer-reviewed papers were identified and included within this review. The main research findings are that as a horse progresses through the gaits (walk, trot and canter), the rider's heart rate and oxygen consumption increase. The causal physiological factor at present is thought to be higher levels of tonic muscular contraction particularly of the trunk, which in elite equestrians achieves a more controlled upright trunk position, compared to their novice counterparts. It is the faster gaits, and jumping that require the rider to adopt a ‘forwards’ riding position that necessitates weight bearing to be through the rider's legs, as opposed to a seated position, where weight bearing is predominantly through the pelvis. It is apparent that these ‘forward position’ modes of riding significantly increase metabolic cost and result in elevated levels of blood lactate, thus implying that they incorporate some anaerobic demand. Due to the paucity of literature available for review and particularly that which incorporates data obtained from ‘competitive’ performances, future research should attempt to prioritise investigations in competitive in addition to simulated riding environments. Only when further physiological and biomechanical data are available from a greater range of equestrian disciplines and from a range of level of athletes, will the demands of these sports be more clearly understood. Until such time, the development of evidence-based sport specific and potentially performance enhancing rider strength and conditioning programmes cannot be realised.

Center-of-Pressure Movements During Equine-Assisted Activities

We compared anteroposterior and mediolateral range of motion and velocity of the center of pressure (COP) on the horse’s back between riders without disabilities and riders with cerebral palsy. An electronic pressure mat was used to track COP movements beneath the saddle in 4 riders without disabilities and 4 riders with cerebral palsy. Comparisons between rider groups were made using the Mann–Whitney test (p &lt; .05). The two rider groups differed significantly in anteroposterior range of COP motion, mediolateral range of COP motion, and mediolateral COP velocity. Anteroposterior COP velocity did not differ between groups. The results suggest that measurements of COP range of motion and velocity are potentially useful for monitoring changes in balance as an indicator of core stability during equine-assisted activities.

Effects on behaviour and rein tension on horses ridden with or without martingales and rein inserts

Unsteady hand position can cause discomfort to the horse, potentially leading to conflict behaviours (CB) such as head tossing or tail lashing. Some instructors feel that martingales or elastic rein inserts can reduce discomfort caused by inexperienced and unsteady hands. Others consider these devices to be inappropriate 'crutches'. Four horses and nine riders were tested under three conditions in random order: plain reins, adjustable training martingales (TM), and elasticised rein inserts (RI). Rein-tension data (7s) and behavioural data (30s) were collected in each direction. Rein-tension data were collected via strain-gauge transducers. Behavioural data were assessed using an ethogram of defined behaviours. No differences in the number of CB were observed. Mean rein tension for TM was higher than that of RI or controls. Relative to the withers, the head was lower for horses ridden with martingales. Carefully fitted martingales may have a place in riding schools that teach novices.

A preliminary investigation of rider position during walk, trot and canter

The purpose of this study was to determine whether significant differences exist in the position of a horse rider when assessed at different points in the horse's stride cycle at walk, trot and canter on the right rein. Video analysis was used to determine the absolute angles of the trunk, thigh and lower leg of five subjects during the walk, rising trot and canter. The range of movement of the trunk, thigh and lower leg during each gait was also determined. At walk significant differences in the rider's trunk angle were found between limb impacts (P<0.05). At trot significant differences were found in all angles between impacts of the horse's diagonal limb pairs (P<0.05). At canter, there were no significant differences in rider position between limb impacts. The range of movement of the trunk was 5.9°, 4.1° and 4.7° for walk, trot and canter, respectively. The corresponding ranges of the thigh and lower leg were 1.9°, 7.3° and 4.4°, and 2.9°, 5.2° and 3.9°, respectively. This preliminary study has demonstrated differences in rider posture between limb impacts in walk and trot. Further work is necessary to investigate the forces acting on the rider during each gait and the postural strategies employed by riders to maintain a balanced position. Such work is a necessary forerunner to the study of rider influence on horse performance.

Heart rate response to therapeutic riding in children with cerebral palsy: an exploratory study

PURPOSE

The study was designed to document the heart rate response to therapeutic riding in children with cerebral palsy having mild-to-severe disability.

METHODS

Participants consisted of eight youth riders with cerebral palsy, divided into two groups: ambulatory and wheelchair dependent. The riders received continuous digital heart rate monitoring during 10 weekly 20-minute therapeutic horseback riding sessions.

RESULTS

The averaged resting, median, and peak heart rate values, as well as the peak percentage heart rate reserve values, were significantly higher in the wheelchair-dependent group.

CONCLUSIONS

The youth with severe disability (The Gross Motor Function Classification System level IV) who were wheelchair dependent demonstrated higher heart rate values during therapeutic riding than their ambulatory counterparts. In view of these higher heart rate values, further studies are needed to address the role of monitoring heart rate response during therapeutic riding.

Stabilization of wrist position during horseback riding at trot

Kinematic analysis has been used to understand performance in many sports, but few objective studies of equestrian technique have been published. The objective was to describe movements of the rider's torso and arms relative to movements of the horse's pelvis and shoulder and the position of the bit during trotting. Six experienced female riders rode the same dressage horse at a sitting trot, with rider and horse kinematics collected. The trot is a symmetrical gait, which implies kinematic symmetry between the first and the second halves of the gait. Three trials of a half stride, from left forelimb lift-off to right forelimb lift-off, were analysed for each subject. In all riders, trunk angle was maximal (backward tilt) in early stance, at which time the rider's hips were closest to and the rider's shoulders were furthest from the bit. Trunk angle was minimal (forward tilt) at the end of stance when the shoulders were closest to and the hips were furthest from the bit. Range of motion of the rider's hips and shoulders varied greatly between subjects. Movements of the rider's shoulder joint and elbow joint were synchronized with the trunk oscillations, so the distance from the rider's wrist to the horse's bit changed by only 15 ± 3 mm during the stride. It is concluded that the six experienced riders were able to accommodate the motion of the horse's body while maintaining a consistent contact with the bit by minimizing changes in the distance from the wrist to the bit.