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Boruch AE, Barhorst EE, Rayne TJ, Roberge GA, Brukardt SM, Leitel ZT, Coe CL, Fleshner M, Falvo MJ, Cook DB, Lindheimer JB. Exercise does not cause post-exertional malaise in Veterans with Gulf War Illness: A randomized, controlled, dose-response, crossover study. Brain Behav Immun 2024; 120:221-230. [PMID: 38777281 PMCID: PMC11269017 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2024.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Chronic multisymptom illnesses (CMI) such as Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Long-COVID, and Gulf War Illness (GWI) are associated with an elevated risk of post-exertional malaise (PEM), an acute exacerbation of symptoms and other related outcomes following exercise. These individuals may benefit from personalized exercise prescriptions which prioritize risk minimization, necessitating a better understanding of dose-response effects of exercise intensity on PEM. METHODS Veterans with GWI (n = 40) completed a randomized controlled crossover experiment comparing 20 min of seated rest to light-, moderate-, and vigorous-intensity cycling conditions over four separate study visits. Symptoms, pain sensitivity, cognitive performance, inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein and plasma cytokines) were measured before and within 1 h after exercise and seated rest. Physical activity behavior was measured ≥ 7 days following each study visit via actigraphy. Linear mixed effects regression models tested the central hypothesis that higher intensity exercise would elicit greater exacerbation of negative outcomes, as indicated by a significant condition-by-time interaction for symptom, pain sensitivity, cognitive performance, and inflammatory marker models and a significant main effect of condition for physical activity models. RESULTS Significant condition-by-time interactions were not observed for primary or secondary measures of symptoms, pain sensitivity, cognitive performance, and a majority of inflammatory markers. Similarly, a significant effect of condition was not observed for primary or secondary measures of physical activity. CONCLUSIONS Undesirable effects such as symptom exacerbation were observed for some participants, but the group-level risk of PEM following light-, moderate-, or vigorous-intensity exercise was no greater than seated rest. These findings challenge several prior views about PEM and lend support to a broader body of literature showing that the benefits of exercise outweigh the risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E Boruch
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | | | - Gunnar A Roberge
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | - Zoie T Leitel
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | | | - Michael J Falvo
- VA Airborne Hazards and Burn Pits Center of Excellence, East Orange, NJ, USA
| | - Dane B Cook
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jacob B Lindheimer
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; James A. Haley Veterans' Hospital, Tampa, FL, USA.
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Talik TN, Penna EM, Hack BP, Harp A, Millard-Stafford M. Effects of Acute Guarana ( Paullinia cupana) Ingestion on Mental Performance and Vagal Modulation Compared to a Low Dose of Caffeine. Nutrients 2024; 16:1892. [PMID: 38931247 PMCID: PMC11206275 DOI: 10.3390/nu16121892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Guarana (GUA), a Brazilian seed extract, contains caffeine and other bioactive compounds that may have psychoactive effects. To assess the acute effects of GUA compared to a low dose of caffeine (CAF) on cognitive and mood parameters, twenty participants completed a double-blind, crossover experiment where they ingested capsules containing the following: (1) 100 mg CAF, (2) 500 mg GUA containing 130 mg caffeine, or (3) placebo (PLA). Cognitive tests (Simon and 2N-Back Task) were performed at the baseline (pre-ingestion) and 60 min after ingestion. The response time for the cognitive tests and heart rate variability were unaffected (p > 0.05) by treatment, although 2N-Back was overall faster (p = 0.001) across time. The accuracy in the 2N-Back Task showed a significant interaction effect (p = 0.029) due to higher post-ingestion versus pre-ingestion levels (p = 0.033), but only with the PLA. The supplements also had no effect on cognitive measures following physical fatigue (n = 11). There was an interaction effect on perceived mental energy, where the pre-ingestion of GUA had lower mental pep ratings compared to post-ingestion (p = 0.006) and post-exercise (p = 0.018) levels. Neither the acute ingestion of GUA nor low dose of CAF influenced cognitive performance or provided consistent benefit on mood or mental workload through vagal modulation. Additional investigations are beneficial to determining the lowest effective dose for CAF or GUA to influence mood and/or cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler N. Talik
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA; (T.N.T.); (B.P.H.); (A.H.)
| | - Eduardo Macedo Penna
- Physical Education Faculty, Federal University of Pará, Castanhal 68746-630, PA, Brazil;
| | - Brian P. Hack
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA; (T.N.T.); (B.P.H.); (A.H.)
| | - Alec Harp
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA; (T.N.T.); (B.P.H.); (A.H.)
| | - Mindy Millard-Stafford
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA; (T.N.T.); (B.P.H.); (A.H.)
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Soylu TG, Roess A, Boolani A, Wilson AN, Huddleston KC, Lawrence GN, Oetjen C. Depression, Anxiety, Energy, and Fatigue Among Nurses Who Cared for Patients During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Holist Nurs 2023:8980101231200352. [PMID: 37774689 DOI: 10.1177/08980101231200352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/01/2023]
Abstract
Purpose of Study: Nurses around the world have faced challenges during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This study examined the association between depression and anxiety and trait energy and trait fatigue, and baseline health status and work characteristics. Design of Study: A cross-sectional study. Methods: A survey was conducted to collect self-reported data from nurses involved in patient care in Northern Virginia. Depression and anxiety were assessed using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) depression and anxiety scales. To measure trait energy and trait fatigue, the Mental and Physical State and Trait Energy and Fatigue Scale (MPSTEFS) was used. Findings: There was a significant association between depression and energy (b=-0.46, t = -1.78, p < .001) and loneliness (b=1.38, t = 4.00, p < .001) and increased alcohol use (b=2.11, t = 2.04, p = .045). We also found that nurses with depression were significantly more likely to seek mental health counseling (b=-2.91, t = 2.54, p = 0.013), which was also the case for anxiety (b=3.13, t = 2.14, p = .036). Conclusions: Our study highlights the mental health burden among nurses who worked in the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic and its association with increased alcohol use and loneliness. The findings may help healthcare leaders identify early signals of deterioration in nurses' well-being.
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Boolani A, Yager C, Reid J, Lackman J, Smith ML. Correlates of depressive mood among graduate-level allied health students: An exploratory study examining trait energy and fatigue. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH : J OF ACH 2023; 71:1685-1695. [PMID: 34379564 DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2021.1960843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Objective: The objective of this study was to identify factors associated with the occurrence and severity of depressive mood states among graduate-level allied health students. Participants: Students (N = 77) completed this study. Methods: Participants completed a series of self-reported surveys measuring moods, lifestyle behaviors, trait mental and physical energy and fatigue, and objective assessments of Trail-Making Test Part-B, and muscle oxygen consumption. Multiple backwards linear regression models were fitted to identify factors associated with depressive mood states. Results: When accounting for all subjects, increased severity of depressive mood states was associated with worse sleep quality (SQ), increased sitting time (ST), and trait physical fatigue (TPF). When examining subjects reporting depressive mood states, increased severity of depressive mood states was associated with worse SQ, increased ST, decreased mental workload on non-school days, and trait physical energy (TPE). Conclusion: Adjustments in lifestyle factors such as sleep, mental workload, and ST, may ameliorate depressive mood states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Boolani
- Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, USA
| | - Chelsea Yager
- Department of Neurology, St. Joseph's Hospital, Syracuse, New York, USA
| | - Jeri Reid
- Department of Neurology, St. Joseph's Hospital, Syracuse, New York, USA
| | - Jeremy Lackman
- Department of Health and Physical Education, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, New Jersey, USA
| | - Matthew Lee Smith
- Center for Population Health and Aging, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
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5
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Boolani A, Gruber AH, Torad AA, Stamatis A. Identifying Current Feelings of Mild and Moderate to High Depression in Young, Healthy Individuals Using Gait and Balance: An Exploratory Study. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:6624. [PMID: 37514917 PMCID: PMC10384769 DOI: 10.3390/s23146624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Depressive mood states in healthy populations are prevalent but often under-reported. Biases exist in self-reporting of depression in otherwise healthy individuals. Gait and balance control can serve as objective markers for identifying those individuals, particularly in real-world settings. We utilized inertial measurement units (IMU) to measure gait and balance control. An exploratory, cross-sectional design was used to compare individuals who reported feeling depressed at the moment (n = 49) with those who did not (n = 84). The Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-sectional Studies was employed to ensure internal validity. We recruited 133 participants aged between 18-36 years from the university community. Various instruments were used to evaluate participants' present depressive symptoms, sleep, gait, and balance. Gait and balance variables were used to detect depression, and participants were categorized into three groups: not depressed, mild depression, and moderate-high depression. Participant characteristics were analyzed using ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests, and no significant differences were found in age, height, weight, BMI, and prior night's sleep between the three groups. Classification models were utilized for depression detection. The most accurate model incorporated both gait and balance variables, yielding an accuracy rate of 84.91% for identifying individuals with moderate-high depression compared to non-depressed individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Boolani
- Honors Department, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
| | - Allison H Gruber
- Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Ahmed Ali Torad
- Faculty of Physical Therapy, Kafrelsheik University, Kafr El Sheik 33516, Egypt
| | - Andreas Stamatis
- Department of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
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Vlisides PE, Ragheb J, McKinney A, Mentz G, Runstadler N, Martinez S, Jewell E, Lee U, Vanini G, Schmitt EM, Inouye SK, Mashour GA. Caffeine, Postoperative Delirium And Change In Outcomes after Surgery (CAPACHINOS)-2: protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open 2023; 13:e073945. [PMID: 37188468 PMCID: PMC10186430 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-073945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Delirium is a major public health issue for surgical patients and their families because it is associated with increased mortality, cognitive and functional decline, prolonged hospital admission and increased healthcare expenditures. Based on preliminary data, this trial tests the hypothesis that intravenous caffeine, given postoperatively, will reduce the incidence of delirium in older adults after major non-cardiac surgery. METHODS AND ANALYSIS The CAffeine, Postoperative Delirium And CHange In Outcomes after Surgery-2 (CAPACHINOS-2) Trial is a single-centre, placebo-controlled, randomised clinical trial that will be conducted at Michigan Medicine. The trial will be quadruple-blinded, with clinicians, researchers, participants and analysts all masked to the intervention. The goal is to enrol 250 patients with a 1:1:1: allocation ratio: dextrose 5% in water placebo, caffeine 1.5 mg/kg and caffeine 3 mg/kg as a caffeine citrate infusion. The study drug will be administered intravenously during surgical closure and on the first two postoperative mornings. The primary outcome will be delirium, assessed via long-form Confusion Assessment Method. Secondary outcomes will include delirium severity, delirium duration, patient-reported outcomes and opioid consumption patterns. A substudy analysis will also be conducted with high-density electroencephalography (72-channel system) to identify neural abnormalities associated with delirium and Mild Cognitive Impairment at preoperative baseline. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION This study was approved by the University of Michigan Medical School Institutional Review Board (HUM00218290). An independent data and safety monitoring board has also been empanelled and has approved the clinical trial protocol and related documents. Trial methodology and results will be disseminated via clinical and scientific journals along with social and news media. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER NCT05574400.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip E Vlisides
- Anesthesiology, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | | | - Amy McKinney
- Anesthesiology, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Graciela Mentz
- Anesthesiology, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | | | | | | | - UnCheol Lee
- Anesthesiology, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Giancarlo Vanini
- Anesthesiology, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Eva M Schmitt
- Hebrew SeniorLife Institute for Aging Research, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sharon K Inouye
- Hebrew SeniorLife Institute for Aging Research, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - George A Mashour
- Anesthesiology, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Preventive Medicine via Lifestyle Medicine Implementation Practices Should Consider Individuals' Complex Psychosocial Profile. Healthcare (Basel) 2022; 10:healthcare10122560. [PMID: 36554083 PMCID: PMC9777994 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare10122560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Noncommunicable chronic diseases are associated with lifestyle behaviors. Psychological and social factors may influence the adoption of such behaviors. Being mentally and physically energized or fatigued may influence the intention-behavior gap of healthy lifestyle adoption accordingly. We investigated the associations of age, sex, lifestyle behaviors, mood, and mental and physical energy and fatigue at both the trait and state levels. The participants (N = 670) completed questionnaires assessing their sleep, mood, mental and physical state energy and fatigue, physical activity, mental workload, and diet. The ordinary least squares regression models revealed an overlap between the mental state and trait energy levels for males who consume polyphenols, have a high mental workload, and sleep well. Being younger, having a high stress level, bad sleep habits, and being confused and depressed were associated with high mental fatigue. Physical energy and fatigue shared the same commonalities with the previous results, with greater discrepancies observed between the state and trait indicators compared to that between mental energy and fatigue. Diet and stress management seem to be predictors of high physical energy, and females report higher physical fatigue levels. Health care professionals should consider this psychosocial complex profiling in their differential diagnosis and when one is implementing lifestyle behavioral changes to address the facets of preventive medicine, wellness, and health promotion.
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8
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Carmichael KE, O’Connor PJ, Gay JL. Stair walking effects on feelings of energy and fatigue: Is 4-min enough for benefits? Front Psychol 2022; 13:895446. [PMID: 36059746 PMCID: PMC9434211 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Even low intensity exercise bouts of at least 15 min can improve feelings of energy (FOE) and reduce systolic blood pressure. However, little is known about the psychological outcomes of briefer exercise bouts, particularly for modes of exercise that are more intense than level walking, and readily available to many working adults. This study assessed the effects of a 4-min bout of stair walking on FOE and feelings of fatigue (FOF). Methods Thirty-six young adult participants were randomized to either stair walking or seated control groups. All participants walked on level-ground from a laboratory to a nearby stairwell (~90 s) and were seated for 4 min before beginning their experimental condition. Stair-walking participants walked up and down one flight of 16 stairs at their own pace for 4 min, while control participants remained seated during that time. Participants walked back to the laboratory for post-condition assessments. Measures of blood pressure, heart rate, rated perceived exertion (RPE), and the intensity of feelings of mental energy, mental fatigue, physical energy, and physical fatigue were assessed pre-and post-condition. Separate one-way ANOVAs were conducted on change scores for all variables. Results The stair climbing group experienced significant increases in heart rate [F(1,34) = 13.167, p < 0.001] and RPE [F(1,34) = 93.844, p < 0.001] that were not observed in the seated control group. Four minutes of self-paced stair climbing resulted in small changes and non-significant differences within and between groups in blood pressure as well as FOE and FOF. Conclusion Although a 4-min self-paced exercise bout can convey short-term physiological health benefits, a 4-min bout of self-paced indoor stair walking in a stairwell was insufficient to lower blood pressure or change subjective FOE and fatigue in a sample that exhibited better than typical FOE and FOF at the pre-test.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick J. O’Connor
- Department of Health Promotion and Behavior, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Gay
- Department of Health Promotion and Behavior, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- *Correspondence: Jennifer L. Gay,
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Filippi M, Krähenmann R, Fissler P. The Link Between Energy-Related Sensations and Metabolism: Implications for Treating Fatigue. Front Psychol 2022; 13:920556. [PMID: 35800955 PMCID: PMC9255916 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Energy-related sensations include sensation of energy and fatigue as well as subjective energizability and fatigability. First, we introduce interdisciplinary useful definitions of all constructs and review findings regarding the question of whether sensations of fatigue and energy are two separate constructs or two ends of a single dimension. Second, we describe different components of the bodily energy metabolism system (e.g., mitochondria; autonomic nervous system). Third, we review the link between sensation of fatigue and different components of energy metabolism. Finally, we present an overview of different treatments shown to affect both energy-related sensations and metabolism before outlining future research perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Filippi
- Psychiatric Services Thurgau, Münsterlingen, Switzerland
- University Hospital for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Rainer Krähenmann
- Psychiatric Services Thurgau, Münsterlingen, Switzerland
- University Hospital for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Rainer Krähenmann,
| | - Patrick Fissler
- Psychiatric Services Thurgau, Münsterlingen, Switzerland
- University Hospital for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Kowalski KL, Boolani A, Christie AD. Sex differences in the impact of state and trait fatigue on gait variability. Hum Mov Sci 2021; 80:102884. [PMID: 34600164 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2021.102884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Conditions requiring greater attention or cognitive control, such as fatigue, lead to changes in the motor performance of a task. Perceived fatigue refers to subjective feelings of fatigue, can be expressed as a state variable or trait characteristic and is influenced by demographic factors, such as sex. The purpose of this study was to determine how sex interacts with state and trait physical fatigue (PF) and mental fatigue (MF) to influence gait variability. METHODS 123 healthy adults (77 female, 46 male), aged 18-36 years, completed the Mental and Physical State and Trait Energy and Fatigue Scale. Using a median split for each fatigue variable, participants were placed into "low" or "high" fatigue categories. Gait variability was defined as the asymmetry of lateral step variability (ALSV) and coefficient of variation (CV) of gait speed, stride length and double limb (DL) support during overground walking. RESULTS Males with low state PF had greater ALSV than females with low state PF (p = 0.05, η2p = 0.07) and males with high state PF (p = 0.007, η2p = 0.15). Females with high trait MF had greater CV of gait speed than females with low trait mental fatigue (p = 0.02, η2p = 0.08). Males with low trait MF had greater CV of gait speed (p = 0.01, η2p = 0.10) and stride length (p = 0.002, η2p = 0.17) than females with low trait MF. CV of DL support did not vary based on fatigue level or sex (p ≥ 0.11). CONCLUSIONS There are sex-specific differences in the impact of state PF on asymmetry of lateral step variability and trait MF on the variability of gait speed and stride length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie L Kowalski
- School of Kinesiology, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St., London, Ontario N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Ali Boolani
- Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Ave, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
| | - Anita D Christie
- School of Kinesiology, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St., London, Ontario N6A 3K7, Canada.
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Zhang RC, Madan CR. How does caffeine influence memory? Drug, experimental, and demographic factors. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 131:525-538. [PMID: 34563564 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Caffeine is a widely used nootropic drug, but its effects on memory in healthy participants have not been sufficiently evaluated. Here we review evidence of the effects of caffeine on different types of memory, and the associated drug, experimental, and demographical factors. There is limited evidence that caffeine affects performance in memory tasks beyond improved reaction times. For drug factors, a dose-response relationship may exist but findings are inconsistent. Moreover, there is evidence that the source of caffeine can modulate its effects on memory. For experimental factors, past studies often lacked a baseline control for diet and sleep and none discussed the possible reversal of withdrawal effect due to pre-experimental fasting. For demographic factors, caffeine may interact with sex and age, and the direction of the effect may depend on the dose, individual tolerance, and metabolism at baseline. Future studies should incorporate these considerations, as well as providing continued evidence on the effect of caffeine in visuospatial, prospective, and implicit memory measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Chong Zhang
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.
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12
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State and Trait Fatigue and Energy Predictors of Postural Control and Gait. Motor Control 2021; 25:519-536. [PMID: 34117130 DOI: 10.1123/mc.2020-0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Compromised attentional resources during perceived fatigue has been suggested to alter motor control. The authors determined if measures of postural control and gait are predicted by state and trait physical and mental fatigue and energy, and how these relationships are modified by sex, sleep quality, and physical activity. Young adults (n = 119) completed the Modified Clinical Test of Sensory Integration, overground walking, and questionnaires to quantify fatigue and energy, sleep quality, and physical activity. Regression models indicated that trait fatigue, trait energy, and sleep quality were predictors of postural control (p ≤ .02, R2 ≥ .04). State fatigue, state energy, and sex were predictors of gait (p ≤ .05, R2 ≥ .03). While the variance explained was low (3-13%), the results demonstrate perceptions of fatigue and energy may influence posture and gait.
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13
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Fuller DT, Smith ML, Boolani A. Trait Energy and Fatigue Modify the Effects of Caffeine on Mood, Cognitive and Fine-Motor Task Performance: A Post-Hoc Study. Nutrients 2021; 13:412. [PMID: 33525438 PMCID: PMC7912474 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple studies suggest that genetic polymorphisms influence the neurocognitive effects of caffeine. Using data collected from a double-blinded, within-participants, randomized, cross-over design, this study examined the effects of trait (long-standing pre-disposition) mental and physical energy and fatigue to changes in moods (Profile of Mood Survey-Short Form (POMS-SF), state mental and physical energy and fatigue survey), cognitive (serial subtractions of 3 (SS3) and 7 (SS7)), and fine-motor task (nine-hole peg test) performance after consuming a caffeinated beverage and a non-caffeinated placebo. Results indicate that trait mental and physical fatigue and mental energy modified the effects of caffeine on vigor, tension-anxiety, physical, and mental fatigue. Additionally, we report that those who were high trait physical and mental fatigue and low-trait mental energy reported the greatest benefit of caffeine on the SS3 and SS7, while those who were high trait mental and physical fatigue reported the greatest benefit of consuming caffeine on fine-motor task performance. The results of our study suggest that trait mental and physical fatigue and mental energy modify the acute effects of caffeine among a group of healthy, young adults and should be measured and controlled for by researchers who choose to study the effects of caffeine on acute moods and cognitive and fine-motor task performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel T. Fuller
- Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA;
| | - Matthew Lee Smith
- Center for Population Health and Aging, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Ali Boolani
- Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
- Department of Biology, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
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Yang C, Ma Q, Zhang H, Wu F, Wu M, Yang C, Chen Y, Xiong J, Liu W, Wang H, Wu R, Dai Z, Li Y. Ten days of complete fasting affected subjective sensations but not cognitive abilities in healthy adults. Eur J Nutr 2021; 60:2747-2758. [PMID: 33389084 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-020-02450-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE People may be unable to obtain anything edible for days under some circumstances, but they must maintain their calmness and cognition to navigate solutions. Our aim was to study changes in subjective sensations and cognition in healthy adults during a 10-day complete fasting experiment. METHODS Thirteen healthy male volunteers voluntarily participated in the 22-day experiment comprising 4 phases: 3 days of baseline consumption, 10 days of complete fasting (only water ad libitum), 4 days of calorie restriction, and a 5-day recovery period. The volunteers' subjective sensations, cognitive performance, and serum energy substances were measured at 6 time points. RESULTS Across the 6 time points, the trajectories of subjective sensations in response to fasting were "U"- or " ∩ "-shaped curves instead of progressive discomfort or mood enhancement. A significant fasting time effect was found on depression-dejection (baseline: 16.85 ± 2.88; highest score on the third day of completing fasting: 17.69 ± 3.97, P = 0.04) and self-rated anxiety (baseline: 26.23 ± 4.75; highest score on the sixth day of completing fasting: 30.85 ± 5.58, P = 0.01), and the change curves were consistent with the inflection point of the energy substrates shifting from serum glucose to ketone. In addition, basic cognitive functions appeared to be unaffected during the 10-day fast. CONCLUSIONS Our study showed strong influences on the sensations from the third to sixth days of the prolonged fasting period but no significant effects on basic cognitive abilities associated with the energy substance switch. These findings could contribute to the development and understanding of survival strategies in food-shortage emergencies or of intermittent fasting programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Qianying Ma
- Department of Psychology, Beihang University, No. 37, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Hongyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Feng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Manrui Wu
- Department of Psychology, Beihang University, No. 37, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Chengjia Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Lab of Epigenetics and Health Technology, SPACEnter Space Science and Technology Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jianghui Xiong
- Lab of Epigenetics and Health Technology, SPACEnter Space Science and Technology Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenjuan Liu
- Beijing Ziyuan Fasting Training Center, Beijing, China
| | - Hailong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Ruilin Wu
- Department of Psychology, Beihang University, No. 37, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.
| | - Zhongquan Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China.
| | - Yinghui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, No. 26, Beiqing Road, Haidian District, P.O. Box 5132-15, Beijing, 100094, China.
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Boolani A, Fuller DT, Mondal S, Wilkinson T, Darie CC, Gumpricht E. Caffeine-Containing, Adaptogenic-Rich Drink Modulates the Effects of Caffeine on Mental Performance and Cognitive Parameters: A Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial. Nutrients 2020; 12:E1922. [PMID: 32610481 PMCID: PMC7399841 DOI: 10.3390/nu12071922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a placebo-controlled, double-blinded, within-participants, randomized, cross-over design, we examined the neurocognitive effects of a: (a) caffeine-containing, adaptogenic herbal-rich natural energy shot (e+ shot), (b) a matched caffeine-containing shot (caffeine), and, (c) a placebo. Participants (n = 30) were low consumers of caffeine without elevated feelings of energy. Before and three times after beverage consumption, a 27-min battery was used to assess motivation to perform cognitive tasks, mood, attention ((serial subtractions of 3 (SS3) and 7 (SS7), the continuous performance task (CPT), and the rapid visual input processing tasks)), heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and motor coordination (nine-hole peg test) with a 10-min break between each post-consumption battery. The procedure was repeated for each beverage for each participant at least 48 h apart and within 30 min the same time of day using a random group assignment with blinding of researchers and subjects. To evaluate for changes in outcomes, a Treatment × Time analysis of covariance controlling for hours of prior night's sleep was used. Analysis of all outcomes and all treatment comparisons indicated that compared to placebo, both e+ shot ( Δ ¯ = 2.60; η2 = 0.098) and caffeine ( Δ ¯ = 5.30, η2 = 0.098) increased systolic BP 30 min post consumption (still within normal healthy ranges). The caffeine beverage also led to an improvement in most cognitive measures and moods 30-min post-consumption with improvements tapering at 69 and 108 min, while e+ shot noted more steady improvements with no significant differences between beverages on most cognitive and mood measures at 69 and 108 min. However, compared to caffeine, e+ shot noted a significant increase in reaction time at 108 min, while caffeine noted a small change in the opposite direction. No side-effects were reported by any intervention. These results suggest that the specific blend of adaptogens in e+ shot may modulate the neurocognitive effects of caffeine on mood, and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Boolani
- Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
| | - Daniel T. Fuller
- Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA; (D.T.F.); (S.M.)
| | - Sumona Mondal
- Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA; (D.T.F.); (S.M.)
| | - Tyler Wilkinson
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA; (T.W.); (C.C.D.)
| | - Costel C. Darie
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA; (T.W.); (C.C.D.)
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O'Connor PJ, Kennedy DO, Stahl S. Mental energy: plausible neurological mechanisms and emerging research on the effects of natural dietary compounds. Nutr Neurosci 2019; 24:850-864. [PMID: 31665988 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2019.1684688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Objective: Lack of mental energy is one of the leading reasons adults turn to dietary supplements, with three out of ten supplement users hoping to improve their energy level; even more consume caffeine-containing products for the same reason. Despite this interest from consumers, there is no consensus scientific definition of mental energy or sole validated instrument for measuring it. We performed this review to summarize main findings from research regarding the influence of natural dietary compounds on three aspects of mental energy: cognition (vigilance), motivation (to do mental work), and mood (feelings of energy and/or absence of feelings of fatigue).Methods: A narrative review of key papers.Results: In addition to caffeine, a number of other compounds, including the polyphenols, which are found in all plant-derived products, and the phytochemicals in culinary herbs and herbal products such as Panax ginseng and Ginkgo biloba, have been shown in animal models to modulate neurotransmitter activity potentially relevant to mental energy. Inadequate intake of B vitamins could also potentially have a negative effect on mental energy due to their role in overall energy production, as precursors of key cofactors in the citric acid cycle, as well as their role in brain function and neurotransmitter synthesis. Consumption of some of these products may have direct or indirect effects on one or more elements of mental energy.Conclusion: Large, prospective clinical trials of these products using appropriate, validated instruments designed to measure mental energy may be worthwhile if sufficient evidence exists to justify such trials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David O Kennedy
- Brain, Performance and Nutrition Research Centre, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Stephen Stahl
- School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Dupree EJ, Goodwin A, Darie CC, Boolani A. A Pilot Exploratory Proteomics Investigation of Mental Fatigue and Mental Energy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1140:601-611. [PMID: 31347074 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-15950-4_36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fatigue is a common and poorly understood problem that impacts approximately 45% of the United States (US) population. Fatigue has also been associated with fatigue-related driving accidents, school absences, decline in school performance and negative health outcomes. Fatigue has been linked to many diseases and is consistently underreported in medical care. Despite these high financial and societal costs, fatigue is a poorly understood problem and there is no consensus on how to measure fatigue. Proteomics is one of the most unbiased approach to measure differences in the protein levels from various biological fluids in two conditions, i.e. before and after mental exercise, aka fatigue. There are, however, challenges associated with such analyses: proteomics experiments are usually expensive and time consuming and also require a large number of participants. Here, we performed a proteomics experiment of three (pre- and post-fatigue) samples and also three matched controls (pre- and post-non-fatigue). We found no particular protein that has significant changes in fatigue sample upon treatment. We did note a potential association between changes in mental energy and Annexin A1. However, the study has value simply because it is an extra study in the field of fatigue, but also allows other to correlate our results with their results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmalyn J Dupree
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
| | - Aurora Goodwin
- Applied Physiology and Psychology Lab, Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
| | - Costel C Darie
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
| | - Ali Boolani
- Applied Physiology and Psychology Lab, Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA.
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Boolani A, O’Connor PJ, Reid J, Ma S, Mondal S. Predictors of feelings of energy differ from predictors of fatigue. FATIGUE-BIOMEDICINE HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/21641846.2018.1558733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Boolani
- Department of Physical Therapy, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
| | | | - Jeri Reid
- Department of Physician Assistant, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
| | - Sai Ma
- Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
| | - Sumona Mondal
- Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA
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Loy BD, Cameron MH, O'Connor PJ. Perceived fatigue and energy are independent unipolar states: Supporting evidence. Med Hypotheses 2018. [PMID: 29523293 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2018.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Persistent fatigue is a common problem (∼20-45% of U.S. population), with higher prevalence and severity in people with medical conditions such as cancer, depression, fibromyalgia, heart failure, sleep apnea and multiple sclerosis. There are few FDA-approved treatments for fatigue and great disagreement on how to measure fatigue, with over 250 instruments used in research. Many instruments define fatigue as "a lack of energy", thus viewing energy and fatigue states as opposites on a single bipolar continuum. In this paper, we hypothesize that energy and fatigue are distinct perceptual states, should be measured using separate unipolar scales, have different mechanisms, and deficits should be treated using tailored therapies. Energy and fatigue independence has been found in both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis studies. Experiments in various fields, including behavioral pharmacology and exercise science, often find changes in energy and not fatigue, or vice versa. If the hypothesis that energy and fatigue are independent is correct, there are likely different mechanisms that drive energy and fatigue changes. Energy could be increased by elevated dopamine and norepinephrine transmission and binding. Fatigue could be increased by elevated brain serotonin and inflammatory cytokines and reduced histamine binding. The hypothesis could be tested by an experiment that attempts to produce simultaneously high ratings of energy and fatigue (such as with two drugs using a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design), which would offer strong evidence against the common viewpoint of a bipolar continuum. If the hypothesis is correct, prior literature using bipolar instruments will be limited, and research on the prevalence, mechanisms, and treatment of low energy and elevated fatigue as separate conditions will be needed. In the immediate future, measuring both energy and fatigue using unipolar measurement tools may improve our understanding of these states and improve therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan D Loy
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States.
| | - Michelle H Cameron
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States; Multiple Sclerosis Center of Excellence-West, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Patrick J O'Connor
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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Bernard BN, Louise LC, Louise D. The Effects of Carbohydrates, in Isolation and Combined with Caffeine, on Cognitive Performance and Mood-Current Evidence and Future Directions. Nutrients 2018; 10:E192. [PMID: 29425182 PMCID: PMC5852768 DOI: 10.3390/nu10020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This review examines the effects of carbohydrates, delivered individually and in combination with caffeine, on a range of cognitive domains and subjective mood. There is evidence for beneficial effects of glucose at a dose of 25 g on episodic memory, but exploration of dose effects has not been systematic and the effects on other cognitive domains is not known. Factors contributing to the differential sensitivity to glucose facilitation include age, task difficulty/demand, task domain, and glucoregulatory control. There is modest evidence to suggest modulating glycemic response may impact cognitive function. The evidence presented in this review identifies dose ranges of glucose and caffeine which improve cognition, but fails to find convincing consistent synergistic effects of combining caffeine and glucose. Whilst combining glucose and caffeine has been shown to facilitate cognitive performance and mood compared to placebo or glucose alone, the relative contribution of caffeine and glucose to the observed effects is difficult to ascertain, due to the paucity of studies that have appropriately compared the effects of these ingredients combined and in isolation. This review identifies a number of methodological challenges which need to be considered in the design of future hypothesis driven research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyle Neil Bernard
- Leeds Nutrition and Behaviour Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Lawton Clare Louise
- Leeds Nutrition and Behaviour Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Dye Louise
- Leeds Nutrition and Behaviour Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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21
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Wilson TJ, Gray MJ, Van Klinken JW, Kaczmarczyk M, Foxe JJ. Macronutrient composition of a morning meal and the maintenance of attention throughout the morning. Nutr Neurosci 2017; 21:729-743. [PMID: 28714768 PMCID: PMC5924415 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2017.1347998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND At present, the impact of macronutrient composition and nutrient intake on sustained attention in adults is unclear, although some prior work suggests that nutritive interventions that engender slow, steady glucose availability support sustained attention after consumption. A separate line of evidence suggests that nutrient consumption may alter electroencephalographic markers of neurophysiological activity, including neural oscillations in the alpha-band (8-14 Hz), which are known to be richly interconnected with the allocation of attention. It is here investigated whether morning ingestion of foodstuffs with differing macronutrient compositions might differentially impact the allocation of sustained attention throughout the day as indexed by both behavior and the deployment of attention-related alpha-band activity. METHODS Twenty-four adult participants were recruited into a three-day study with a cross-over design that employed a previously validated sustained attention task (the Spatial CTET). On each experimental day, subjects consumed one of three breakfasts with differing carbohydrate availabilities (oatmeal, cornflakes, and water) and completed blocks of the Spatial CTET throughout the morning while behavioral performance, subjective metrics of hunger/fullness, and electroencephalographic (EEG) measurements of alpha oscillatory activity were recorded. RESULTS Although behavior and electrophysiological metrics changed over the course of the day, no differences in their trajectories were observed as a function of breakfast condition. However, subjective metrics of hunger/fullness revealed that caloric interventions (oatmeal and cornflakes) reduced hunger across the experimental day with respect to the non-caloric, volume-matched control (water). Yet, no differences in hunger/fullness were observed between the oatmeal and cornflakes interventions. CONCLUSION Observation of a relationship between macronutrient intervention and sustained attention (if one exists) will require further standardization of empirical investigations to aid in the synthesis and replicability of results. In addition, continued implementation of neurophysiological markers in this domain is encouraged, as they often produce nuanced insight into cognition even in the absence of overt behavioral changes. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03169283.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy J Wilson
- a The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center (CERC), Department of Pediatrics , Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center , Bronx , NY 10461 , USA.,b The Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience , Rose F. Kennedy Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Rose F. Kennedy Center , Bronx , NY 10461 , USA
| | - Michael J Gray
- d The Graduate Center of the City University of New York , New York , NY 10031
| | | | | | - John J Foxe
- a The Sheryl and Daniel R. Tishman Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Children's Evaluation and Rehabilitation Center (CERC), Department of Pediatrics , Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center , Bronx , NY 10461 , USA.,c Department of Neuroscience , The Ernest J. Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry , Rochester , NY 14642 , USA
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Randolph DD, O'Connor PJ. Stair walking is more energizing than low dose caffeine in sleep deprived young women. Physiol Behav 2017; 174:128-135. [PMID: 28302573 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The acute energizing effect of exercise and caffeine has never been examined in a single study of adults with chronic sleep deprivation but evidence from a study of this type could help individuals choose between these two common alertness-enhancing options. AIM The apriori primary aim of this experiment was to compare the influence of 10-min of low-to-moderate intensity stair walking to the consumption of capsules containing 50mg caffeine or flour (placebo) on feelings of energy in physically active, college female caffeine users with chronic insufficient sleep. Effects on secondary outcomes related to feelings of energy also were assessed. MATERIAL-METHOD A repeated measures crossover experiment was conducted with 18 college women (18-23years) who reported (i) daily caffeine consumption that was not extreme (40-400mg), (ii) typical leisure time physical activity that was not extreme (at least 2 weekly mild 15-min or longer bouts and no >5 strenuous 15-min or longer bouts), and (iii) sleeping <45h per week. Mood states (POMS-BF), focused on energy feelings (vigor), as well as working memory (N-back), sustained attention (CPT), simple reaction time (SRT), and motivation to complete the cognitive tasks were measured before and after a 10-min exercise condition (20min seated rest followed by 10min of low-to-moderate intensity stair walking) and compared to both a caffeine condition (50mg caffeine capsule followed by 30min of seated rest) and a similar flour (placebo) capsule condition. Condition (exercise, caffeine, placebo)×Time (Baseline, Post-1, Post-2, and for mood Post-3) ANCOVAs (controlling for Condition order) tested the hypothesized effects. RESULTS Condition×Time interactions showed that stair walking increased POMS-BF vigor at Post-1 compared to both placebo and caffeine. Other interactions were not significant. CONCLUSION A brief bout of low-to-moderate intensity stair walking has transient energizing effects that exceed a low dose of caffeine for active young women with chronic insufficient sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek D Randolph
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-6554, United States
| | - Patrick J O'Connor
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-6554, United States.
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McLellan TM, Caldwell JA, Lieberman HR. A review of caffeine’s effects on cognitive, physical and occupational performance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 71:294-312. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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FRITZ KATHRYNM, O’CONNOR PATRICKJ. Acute Exercise Improves Mood and Motivation in Young Men with ADHD Symptoms. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2016; 48:1153-60. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Galioto R, Spitznagel MB. The Effects of Breakfast and Breakfast Composition on Cognition in Adults. Adv Nutr 2016; 7:576S-89S. [PMID: 27184286 PMCID: PMC4863263 DOI: 10.3945/an.115.010231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Extensive literature has addressed the acute cognitive effects of breaking a fast. Recent reviews in this line of work have synthesized available research on the cognitive consequences of fasting compared with nutrient intake and the cognitive effects of macronutrient consumption. These largely have been inconclusive, possibly in part because of selection criteria limiting the scope of studies covered. The purpose of the current review is to integrate the results of the literature examining the cognitive effects of breakfast and breakfast composition in adults with the use of a flexible definition of breakfast, specifically, any caloric intake after a fasting period of ≥8 h. This review includes 38 studies that examine the acute cognitive impact of breakfast and 16 studies that examine the effects of breakfast composition. Results suggest that healthy adults show a small but robust advantage for memory (particularly delayed recall) from consuming breakfast. Largely equivocal results emerge for attention and motor and executive function; there were no effects from breakfast on language. Regarding breakfast composition, a smaller number of studies and widely disparate methodology addressing this question preclude definitive conclusions about the effects of cognition. A subset of this literature examines these questions in the context of glucoregulation; the findings emphasize the importance of considering differences in glucoregulation in research designs, even among healthy cohorts. The limitations of this literature include methodologic differences, such as the use of different tests to measure cognitive constructs, as well as the effects of timing in test administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Galioto
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH
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Carbohydrate ingestion but not mouth rinse maintains sustained attention when fasted. Physiol Behav 2015; 153:33-9. [PMID: 26498427 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Carbohydrate (CHO) receptors in the mouth signal brain areas involved in cognitive tasks relying upon motivation and task persistence; however, the minimal CHO dose that improves mental activity is unclear. PURPOSE To determine if CHO (via ingestion or oral rinse) influences sustained attention without eliciting glycemic responses when in a fasted state. METHODS Study A: Six healthy adults completed five treatment trials, ingesting 0-6% CHO solutions to evaluate glycemic response. Peak blood glucose for 6% and 1.5% CHO was greater (p<0.05) than 0% and 0.4% CHO; thus, the low 0.4% CHO was evaluated further. Study B: Following an overnight fast, ten healthy adults completed three trials in a crossover design: 1) 400 ml 0.4% CHO ingested serially via 25 ml boluses, 2) 375 ml 0% CHO control (CON) ingested followed by one 25 ml 6% CHO isocaloric (1.5 g CHO) mouth rinse, and 3) CON ingest followed by CON rinse. Following treatments, a 20 min Continuous Performance Task (CPT) was performed to assess accuracy and precision. RESULTS Accuracy and precision were not different during the first 5 min of CPT. However, accuracy was maintained with CHO ingest (p=1.0) but decreased over 20 min (p<0.05) with both CHO and CON rinse treatments. Precision tended to decline over 20 min CPT with CON (p=0.06) and CHO rinse (p=0.05) but were maintained with CHO ingest (p=1.0). No differences in glycemic responses were observed between treatments. CONCLUSIONS Compared to mouth rinsing CON or CHO (1.5 g in 6% CHO), ingestion of an isocaloric low-CHO drink maintained sustained attention over a mentally fatiguing task and appears effective after fasting without eliciting a glycemic response.
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Childs E. Influence of energy drink ingredients on mood and cognitive performance. Nutr Rev 2015; 72 Suppl 1:48-59. [PMID: 25293543 DOI: 10.1111/nure.12148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sales of energy products have grown enormously in recent years. Manufacturers claim that the products, in the form of drinks, shots, supplements, and gels, enhance physical and cognitive performance, while users believe the products promote concentration, alertness, and fun. Most of these products contain caffeine, a mild psychostimulant, as their foremost active ingredient. However, they also contain additional ingredients, e.g., carbohydrates, amino acids, herbal extracts, vitamins, and minerals, often in unspecified amounts and labeled as an "energy blend." It is not clear whether these additional ingredients provide any physical or cognitive enhancement beyond that provided by caffeine alone. This article reviews the available empirical data on the interactive effects of these ingredients and caffeine on sleep and cognitive performance and suggests objectives for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Childs
- The University of Chicago, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Kumar N, Wheaton LA, Snow TK, Millard-Stafford M. Exercise and caffeine improve sustained attention following fatigue independent of fitness status. FATIGUE-BIOMEDICINE HEALTH AND BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/21641846.2015.1027553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Wells AJ, Hoffman JR, Gonzalez AM, Beyer KS, Jajtner AR, Townsend JR, Oliveira LP, Fukuda DH, Fragala MS, Stout JR. Effects of 28-days ingestion of a slow-release energy supplement versus placebo on hematological and cardiovascular measures of health. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014; 11:59. [PMID: 25525418 PMCID: PMC4269871 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-014-0059-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recently, slow release tablets have been developed to prolong energy release throughout the day. The efficacy of the delivery of slow-release caffeine alone is fairly well documented; however, an assessment of safety and tolerability of prolonged use of slow-release energy supplements is lacking. Therefore the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of daily ingestion of a slow-release energy supplement for 28 days on blood chemistry and resting cardiovascular measures in healthy men and women. Methods Forty healthy individuals (20 males, 20 females; age: 22.73 ± 3.06 years; height: 171.68 ± 10.45 cm; mass: 74.49 ± 15.51 kg; BMI: 25.08 ± 3.66 (kg • m2) -1) participated in this randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study. Following a 12-hour fast, participants reported for pre-testing. Testing consisted of resting heart rate (RHR) and blood pressure (BP) measures, followed by assessment of metabolic blood chemistry, blood lipids and complete cell counts. Participants then supplemented with either Energize™ (SUPP) or placebo (PL) for 28 days. Post-testing occurred 24-hours after ingestion of the final dose and consisted of the same protocol at the same time of day as pre-testing. Results No significant changes in outcome measures were observed. A significant difference between groups was observed for plasma glucose concentrations; however, follow-up testing revealed that pre- to post-supplementation changes were not significant for either SUPP or PL. All variables remained within normal adult reference ranges. No adverse events were reported. Conclusions These findings indicate that 28 consecutive days ingestion of a slow release energy supplement containing caffeine in caffeine users is both safe and tolerable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Wells
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Jay R Hoffman
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Adam M Gonzalez
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Kyle S Beyer
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Adam R Jajtner
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Jeremy R Townsend
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Leonardo P Oliveira
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - David H Fukuda
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Maren S Fragala
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
| | - Jeffrey R Stout
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Wellness, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd., Orlando, FL 32816 USA
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Lindheimer JB, Loy BD, O'Connor PJ. Short-term effects of black pepper (Piper nigrum) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis and Rosmarinus eriocalyx) on sustained attention and on energy and fatigue mood states in young adults with low energy. J Med Food 2013; 16:765-71. [PMID: 23905652 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2012.0216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose was to test whether a single dose of black pepper or rosemary produced short-term enhancements in sustained attention, motivation to perform cognitive tasks, or feelings of mental energy and fatigue. Outcomes were measured in 40 young adults with below average feelings of energy before and twice after they orally consumed capsules containing either black pepper (2.0 g), rosemary (1.7 g), or a placebo (3.1 g rice flour). Sustained attention was measured using a 16-min dual task, in which, single-digit numbers were presented every second on a screen and the participant performed both a primary task [detection of three successive, different odd digits] and a secondary task [detection of the number 6]. Feelings of energy and fatigue were measured using the vigor and fatigue subscales of the Profile of Mood States and visual analog scales (VAS). Analysis of variance showed nonsignificant condition (spice versus placebo)×time (T1, T2, & T3) effects for motivation, measured with a VAS, and the intensity of energy and fatigue feelings. Unadjusted effect sizes revealed that rosemary induced small, transient reductions in false alarm errors (d=0.21) and mental fatigue (d=0.40) at isolated time periods. Time-varying analysis of covariance, controlling for motivation to perform cognitive tasks, showed no significant effects on the primary or secondary task outcomes of correct responses (hits), errors (false alarms, misses), speed of response (reaction time), and signal detection sensitivity. It is concluded that black pepper and rosemary, consumed in a capsule form, in the doses used and while wearing a nose clip to block olfactory effects, do not induce consistent short-term improvements in sustained attention, motivation to perform cognitive tasks, or feelings of mental energy and fatigue in young adults with low energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob B Lindheimer
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602-6554, USA
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Dammann KW, Bell M, Kanter M, Berger A. Effects of consumption of sucromalt, a slowly digestible carbohydrate, on mental and physical energy questionnaire responses. Nutr Neurosci 2013; 16:83-95. [DOI: 10.1179/1476830512y.0000000034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Caffeine as an attention enhancer: reviewing existing assumptions. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 225:251-74. [PMID: 23241646 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2917-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2012] [Accepted: 10/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Despite the large number of studies on the behavioural effects of caffeine, an unequivocal conclusion had not been reached. In this review, we seek to disentangle a number of questions. OBJECTIVE Whereas there is a general consensus that caffeine can improve performance on simple tasks, it is not clear whether complex tasks are also affected, or if caffeine affects performance of the three attention networks (alerting, orienting and executive control). Other questions being raised in this review are whether effects are more pronounced for higher levels of caffeine, are influenced by habitual caffeine use and whether there effects are due to withdrawal reversal. METHOD Literature review of double-blind placebo controlled studies that assessed acute effects of caffeine on attention tasks in healthy adult volunteers. RESULTS Caffeine improves performance on simple and complex attention tasks, and affects the alerting, and executive control networks. Furthermore, there is inconclusive evidence on dose-related performance effects of caffeine, or the influence of habitual caffeine consumption on the performance effects of caffeine. Finally, caffeine's effects cannot be attributed to withdrawal reversal. CONCLUSIONS Evidence shows that caffeine has clear beneficial effects on attention, and that the effects are even more widespread than previously assumed.
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Moore RD, Romine MW, O'connor PJ, Tomporowski PD. The influence of exercise-induced fatigue on cognitive function. J Sports Sci 2012; 30:841-50. [PMID: 22494399 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2012.675083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Although anecdotal reports suggest that information processing and decision making is impaired immediately following prolonged periods of physical activity, results obtained from laboratory studies of exercise-induced fatigue have been inconsistent. Fatigue effects may be task specific and related to the time of post-exercise testing. The present study examined the effects on adults' performance of two cognitive tasks that differed in processing demands over an 80-min period of fatigue. Thirty young adult men and women were randomly assigned to either an exercise group and completed a 60-min bout of cycle ergometry at 90% ventilatory threshold or a control group and rested for 60 min. Following interventions, each participant completed a simple and complex version of a visual perceptual discrimination test, a 40-min memory-based vigilance test and a repetition of the visual perceptual discrimination tests. Those who exercised evidenced significant decrements in performance on complex perceptual-discrimination tasks compared to participants who rested. The response time of exercisers during a memory-demanding vigilance test were significantly slower than those of participants who rested; however, detection performance did not differ between groups neither was there a decrease in target detection across the vigil. The effects of exercise-induced fatigue may be task specific, with greater effects on perceptual tasks, which involve relatively automatic processing, compared to effortful memory-based tasks.
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Maremmani I, Perugi G, Rovai L, Maremmani AGI, Pacini M, Canonico PL, Carbonato P, Mencacci C, Muscettola G, Pani L, Torta R, Vampini C, Akiskal HS. Are "social drugs" (tobacco, coffee and chocolate) related to the bipolar spectrum? J Affect Disord 2011; 133:227-33. [PMID: 21605911 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Across all ages and cultures, mankind has always used substances in order to induce pleasurable sensations or desirable psychophysical states. These substances, notably caffeine, tobacco, alcohol and chocolate, can be labeled 'social drugs'. METHODS We analyzed the social drug habits of 562 patients suffering from mood disorders, according to DSM-IV-R criteria (major depressive episode, recurrent depression, bipolar type I and II disorders and depression not otherwise specified). The sample was also divided into bipolar and non-bipolar according to Hypomania Check-list 32 (HCL-32), which proposes a broader concept of hypomania and soft bipolarity, comprising the spectrum of bipolar disorders proper, along with other, "softer" expressions of bipolarity intermediate between bipolar disorder and normality. RESULTS Using HCL-32 criteria, but DSM-IV-R criteria, a link was confirmed between bipolar spectrum and substance use including social drugs such as tobacco and coffee. LIMITATION Observational correlational study. CONCLUSION This study is in support of earlier theoretical formulations within the framework of the Pisa-San Diego collaboration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Icro Maremmani
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pisa and G. De Lisio Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Pisa, Italy.
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Ooi CP, Loke SC, Yassin Z, Hamid T. Carbohydrates for improving the cognitive performance of independent-living older adults with normal cognition or mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 2011:CD007220. [PMID: 21491398 PMCID: PMC7388979 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd007220.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is an intermediate state between normal cognition and dementia in which daily function is largely intact. This condition may present an opportunity for research into the prevention of dementia. Carbohydrate is an essential and easily accessible macronutrient which influences cognitive performance. A better understanding of carbohydrate-driven cognitive changes in normal cognition and mild cognitive impairment may suggest ways to prevent or reduce cognitive decline. OBJECTIVES To assess the effectiveness of carbohydrates in improving cognitive function in older adults. SEARCH STRATEGY We searched ALOIS, the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group Specialized Register on 22 June 2010 using the terms: carbohydrates OR carbohydrate OR monosaccharides OR disaccharides OR oligosaccharides OR polysaccharides OR CARBS. ALOIS contains records from all major healthcare databases (The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, LILACS) as well as from many trial databases and grey literature sources. SELECTION CRITERIA All randomised controlled trials (RCT) that have examined the efficacy of any form of carbohydrates in normal cognition and MCI. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS One review author selected and retrieved relevant articles for further assessment. The remaining authors independently assessed whether any of the retrieved trials should be included. Disagreements were resolved by discussion. MAIN RESULTS There is no suitable RCT of any form of carbohydrates involving independent-living older adults with normal cognition or mild cognitive impairment. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS There are no suitable RCTs on which to base any recommendations about the use of any form of carbohydrate for enhancing cognitive performance in older adults with normal cognition or mild cognitive impairment. More studies of many different carbohydrates are needed to tease out complex nutritional issues and further evaluate memory improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheow Peng Ooi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra MalaysiaEndocrine Unit, Department of MedicineSerdangSelangor DEMalaysia43400
| | - Seng Cheong Loke
- Universiti Putra MalaysiaInstitute of GerontologySerdangSelangor DEMalaysia43400
| | - Zaitun Yassin
- University Putra MalaysiaDepartment of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences43400 UPM SerdangSelangorMalaysia
| | - Tengku‐Aizan Hamid
- Universiti Putra MalaysiaInstitute of GerontologySerdangSelangor DEMalaysia43400
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