Predicted intake of trace elements and minerals via household drinking water by 6-year-old children from Kraków (Poland). Part 1: lead (year 2000)

Tap Water Consumption Is Associated with Schoolchildren’s Cognitive Deficits in Afghanistan

Environmental influence on intelligence quotient (IQ) is poorly understood in developing countries. We conducted the first cross-sectional investigation to assess the role of socio-economic and environmental factors on schoolchildren’s IQ in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. A representative sample of 245 schoolchildren aged 7–15 was randomly selected in five schools. Children’s records included: non-verbal IQ TONI-1 scale, body mass index, socio-economic status, and further environmental indicators (water supply, proximity to a heavy-traffic road, use of surma traditional cosmetics). The mean age of the children was 11.7 years old (±2.0 years), and 70.2% and 29.8% were male and female, respectively. The children’s mean IQ was 83.8 (±12.6). In total, 37 (14.9%) of the children were overweight, 78 (31.5%) were living below the USD 1.25 poverty line, 133 (53.6%) used tap water supply, 76 (30.6%) used surma, and 166 (66.9%) were exposed to heavy road traffic. The children’s IQ was significantly and independently lowered by tap water use (−3.9; 95% CI [−7.1; −0.6]) and by aging (−1.4; 95% CI [−2.2; −0.6]), as revealed in multivariate analysis, independently of gender, socio-economic status, exposure to heavy road traffic, overweight status, and surma use. Lower IQ among older children is possibly attributed to chronic stress experienced by adolescents due to living conditions in Afghanistan. While using tap water prevents fecal peril, it may expose children to toxic elements such as lead which is known to lower their intellectual development.

Toxicological analysis of Pb and Cd by ET AAS in local anaesthetics for teething (teething gels) based on herbs available in Polish pharmacies

Studies related to the toxicological analyses of metallic impurities in pharmaceuticals (drugs) is an important issue but there is a lack of refereed literature around the safety of teething remedies from herbal origin related to toxic metals impurities. In this article, the levels of Pb and Cd were measured in samples of local anaesthetics for teething (gels) based on herbs. This article was motivated by the fact that Pb and Cd are relevant toxic metals that may cause an adverse effect in babies even at low levels. Additional justifications were (1) the insufficient control of metal impurities in teething gels, (2) the lack of sufficient validation steps and (3) the inadequate sensitivity of applied analytical techniques. The aim of this article was a qualitative and quantitative analysis of Pb and Cd in the most popular and available local anaesthetic for teething (teething gels) based on herbs (n = 5) available in Poland. Metals were determined by ET AAS (electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry), after digestion in a microwave unit using concentrated nitric acid. It was observed that all samples contained Pb and Cd. The levels of Pb and Cd as impurities (independently of the producer and declared composition) are similar. The concentrations of Pb and Cd, at ng/day levels, to which the user is exposed at daily doses meet the standards of the directive ICH Q3D.

The toxicological analysis of lead and cadmium in prescription food for special medical purposes and modified milk products for newborns and infants available in Polish pharmacies

There is currently a lack of risk assessments around Pb and Cd in prescription food for special medical purposes (FSMPs) and modified milk products available in from pharmacies in Poland. This article describes and evaluates a toxicological analysis of lead and cadmium in prescription FSMPs (n = 6) and modified milk products (n = 6) available in Polish pharmacies. The metals were determined using electrothermal atomisation atomic absorption spectrometry. To make the appropriate risk assessment, we considered (1) the levels of lead and cadmium in a powdered product, (2) the amount of the metals consumed in one portion (single exposure), (3) the daily dose depending on age (months) and body weight and (4) the weekly intake of Pb and Cd in samples in comparison to provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). The results demonstrated that the samples analysed do not represent a health hazard to newborns and infants. This study is important because of the concerns around the complex risk assessment of prescription FSMP's and modified milk products available in Polish pharmacies related to lead and cadmium.

Widespread copper and lead contamination of household drinking water, New South Wales, Australia

This study examines arsenic, copper, lead and manganese drinking water contamination at the domestic consumer's kitchen tap in homes of New South Wales, Australia. Analysis of 212 first draw drinking water samples shows that almost 100% and 56% of samples contain detectable concentrations of copper and lead, respectively. Of these detectable concentrations, copper exceeds Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) in 5% of samples and lead in 8%. By contrast, no samples contained arsenic and manganese water concentrations in excess of the ADWG. Analysis of household plumbing fittings (taps and connecting pipework) show that these are a significant source of drinking water lead contamination. Water lead concentrations derived for plumbing components range from 108µg/L to 1440µg/L (n=28, mean - 328µg/L, median - 225µg/L). Analysis of kitchen tap fittings demonstrates these are a primary source of drinking water lead contamination (n=9, mean - 63.4µg/L, median - 59.0µg/L). The results of this study demonstrate that along with other potential sources of contamination in households, plumbing products that contain detectable lead up to 2.84% are contributing to contamination of household drinking water. Given that both copper and lead are known to cause significant health detriments, products for use in contact with drinking water should be manufactured free from copper and lead.

Advantages of the use of deciduous teeth, hair, and blood analysis for lead and cadmium bio-monitoring in children. A study of 6-year-old children from Krakow (Poland)

The population of about 300 6-year-old preschool children was studied for lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in deciduous teeth, scalp hair, and capillary blood. Zinc (Zn) content in hair was also measured due to its possible interferences with the elements studied. The Pb and Cd contents were measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with Zeeman background correction, and Zn, by flame method. Metal levels found were comparable to those in European countries. Positive correlations between Pb and Cd in the same and different tissues were widespread (r=0.23-0.68). A positive correlation was found between Pb in teeth and blood (r=0.65, p<0.001). Pb blood threshold 100 μg L(-1) referred to 2.6 μg g(-1) Pb in teeth. Predictability of this Pb teeth limit was 14% vs. 5% for Pb blood. Strong negative correlation was found between hair Pb and Zn (r=-0.68, p<0.001). Enhanced Cd and Zn levels in hair were associated with the household drinking water hardness. The associations with some other environmental and behavioral factors were also presented and discussed. The results proved the advantage of analysis of primary teeth for Pb exposure screening of preschool children.

Predicted intake of trace elements and minerals via household drinking water by 6-year-old children from Kraków, Poland. Part 2: Cadmium, 1997–2001

Between 1997 and 2001, samples of drinking water (DW) were collected in about 600 households and pre-schools by a double sampling method, early in the morning (stagnant water, W1) and in the evening (flushed water, W2). The study group included about 300 5-7-year-old children living in urban (metropolitan, U) and peripheral (P) areas of Kraków and rural (R) areas in southern Poland. Cadmium concentrations were estimated by the GF-AAS method with Zeeman background correction. Mean cadmium concentrations in water did not vary substantially by year. Moreover, there was no difference between P and R group (p > 0.05). The geometric mean (GM) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of cadmium concentrations in W2 was 0.13 (0.01-1.72) microg l(-1) for U group, while for combined (P&R) non-urban group (NU) it was 0.31 (0.02-6.24) microg l(-1) (p < 0.001). Significant differences between cadmium in W1 and W2 samples were evident from the ratio of cadmium concentration in W1 to W2, i.e. R1,2; its difference (W1 - W2), i.e. D1,2; or relative difference 100 x (W1 - W2)/W1, i.e. D1,2%. For NU sites D1,2, D1,2% and R1,2 values (GM) were 0.25 microg l(-1), 34% and 2.19, respectively, and for U sites 0.19 microg l(-1), 50% and 3.49, respectively. Parameter D1,2 was not site dependent (p > 0.05) and exhibited a plateau at 0.44 microg l(-1). The WHO and Polish limit of cadmium in DW (3 microg l(-1)) was exceeded in W2 samples from 0.5, 5.8 and 10.0% of households from the U, P and R areas, respectively. The predicted cadmium intake with W2 by children was (GM) 0.68 and 2.06% of PTWI for U and NU sites, respectively. However, these contributions were higher for W1 samples by coefficient R1,2. For the cases exceeding the cadmium limit, the predicted cadmium intake with DW contributed to PTWI by 27.4-29.1%. The study proved that contamination of water with cadmium in plumbing is significant, independent of the site type and period. This contamination should be considered as a factor in public health protection programmes with special attention to children. An easy approach to limit the intake of cadmium from DW by about half would be to discard some of the first drawn portion of water from pipes after overnight or longer break of usage.