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Gandidzanwa S, Beukes N, Joseph SV, Janse Van Vuuren A, Mashazi P, Britton J, Kilian G, Roux S, Nyokong T, Lee ME, Frost CL, Tshentu ZR. The development of folate-functionalised palladium nanoparticles for folate receptor targeting in breast cancer cells. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 34:465705. [PMID: 37527629 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/acec52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Folate receptor-targeted therapy has excellent prospects for the treatment of breast cancer. A non-toxic concentration of folate-conjugated palladium-based nanoparticles was used to target the overexpressed folate receptor on breast cancer cells. The folate-conjugated nanoparticles were tailored to accumulate selectively in cancer cells relative to normal cells via the folate receptor. The MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines, and MCF-10A normal cell lines were used in the study. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of nanoparticle cellular uptake and accumulation was conducted using transmission electron microscopy and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. The findings proved that folate-conjugated palladium nanoparticles successfully and preferentially accumulated in breast cancer cells. We conclude that folate-conjugated palladium nanoparticles can be potentially used to target breast cancer cells for radiopharmaceutical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Natasha Beukes
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Sinelizwi V Joseph
- Department of Chemistry, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Arno Janse Van Vuuren
- Center for High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Philani Mashazi
- Department of Chemistry, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, South Africa
- Institute of Nanotechnology Innovation, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, South Africa
| | - Jonathan Britton
- Institute of Nanotechnology Innovation, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, South Africa
| | - Gareth Kilian
- Department of Pharmacy, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Saartjie Roux
- Department of Human Physiology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Tebello Nyokong
- Institute of Nanotechnology Innovation, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, South Africa
| | - Michael E Lee
- Center for High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Carminita L Frost
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
| | - Zenixole R Tshentu
- Department of Chemistry, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha 6001, South Africa
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Abstract
The development of molecular nanostructures with well-defined particle size and shape is of eminent interest in biomedicine. Among many studied nanostructures, dendrimers represent the group of those most thoroughly characterized ones. Due to their unique structure and properties, dendrimers are very attractive for medical and pharmaceutical applications. Owing to the controllable cavities inside the dendrimer, guest molecules may be encapsulated, and highly reactive terminal groups are susceptible to further modifications, e.g., to facilitate target delivery. To understand the potential of these nanoparticles and to predict and avoid any adverse cellular reactions, it is necessary to know the mechanisms responsible for an efficient dendrimer uptake and the destination of their intracellular journey. In this article, we summarize the results of studies describing the dendrimer uptake, traffic, and efflux mechanisms depending on features of specific nanoparticles and cell types. We also present mechanisms of dendrimers responsible for toxicity and alteration in signal transduction pathways at the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Ziemba
- Department of Clinical and Laboratory Genetics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Maciej Borowiec
- Department of Clinical and Laboratory Genetics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Ida Franiak-Pietryga
- Department of Clinical and Laboratory Genetics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland.,Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Bhattacharjee S, Brayden DJ. Addressing the challenges to increase the efficiency of translating nanomedicine formulations to patients. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 16:235-254. [PMID: 33108229 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2021.1826434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology is in a growth phase for drug delivery and medical imaging. Nanomaterials with unique properties present opportunities for encapsulation of therapeutics and imaging agents, along with conjugation to ligands for targeting. Favorable chemistry of nanomaterials can create formulations that address critical challenges for therapeutics, such as insolubility and a low capacity to cross the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) and intestinal wall. AREAS COVERED The authors investigate challenges faced during translation of nanomedicines while suggesting reasons as to why some nanoformulations have under-performed in clinical trials. They assess physiological barriers such as the BBB and gut mucus that nanomedicines must overcome to deliver cargos. They also provide an overview with examples of how nanomedicines can be designed to improve localization and site-specific delivery (e.g., encapsulation, bioconjugation, and triggered-release). EXPERT OPINION There are examples where nanomedicines have demonstrated improved efficacy of payload in humans; however, most of the advantages conferred were in improved pharmacokinetics and reduced toxicity. Problematic data show susceptibility of nanoformulations against natural protective mechanisms present in the body, including distribution impediment by physiological barriers and activation of the reticuloendothelial system. Further initiatives should address current challenges while expanding the scope of nanomedicine into advanced biomedical imaging and antibiotic delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Bhattacharjee
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - David J Brayden
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.,Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
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Choudhury H, Pandey M, Yin TH, Kaur T, Jia GW, Tan SQL, Weijie H, Yang EKS, Keat CG, Bhattamishra SK, Kesharwani P, Md S, Molugulu N, Pichika MR, Gorain B. Rising horizon in circumventing multidrug resistance in chemotherapy with nanotechnology. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2019; 101:596-613. [PMID: 31029353 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2019.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the key barriers in chemotherapy, leading to the generation of insensitive cancer cells towards administered therapy. Genetic and epigenetic alterations of the cells are the consequences of MDR, resulted in drug resistivity, which reflects in impaired delivery of cytotoxic agents to the cancer site. Nanotechnology-based nanocarriers have shown immense shreds of evidence in overcoming these problems, where these promising tools handle desired dosage load of hydrophobic chemotherapeutics to facilitate designing of safe, controlled and effective delivery to specifically at tumor microenvironment. Therefore, encapsulating drugs within the nano-architecture have shown to enhance solubility, bioavailability, drug targeting, where co-administered P-gp inhibitors have additionally combat against developed MDR. Moreover, recent advancement in the stimuli-sensitive delivery of nanocarriers facilitates a tumor-targeted release of the chemotherapeutics to reduce the associated toxicities of chemotherapeutic agents in normal cells. The present article is focused on MDR development strategies in the cancer cell and different nanocarrier-based approaches in circumventing this hurdle to establish an effective therapy against deadliest cancer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hira Choudhury
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Jalan Jalil Perkasa, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Centre for Bioactive Molecules and Drug Delivery, Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Manisha Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Jalan Jalil Perkasa, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Centre for Bioactive Molecules and Drug Delivery, Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Tan Hui Yin
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Taasjir Kaur
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Gan Wei Jia
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - S Q Lawrence Tan
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - How Weijie
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Eric Koh Sze Yang
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Chin Guan Keat
- Bachelor of Pharmacy student, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Subrat Kumar Bhattamishra
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Prashant Kesharwani
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Shadab Md
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nagasekhara Molugulu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Jalan Jalil Perkasa, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Centre for Bioactive Molecules and Drug Delivery, Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mallikarjuna Rao Pichika
- Centre for Bioactive Molecules and Drug Delivery, Institute for Research, Development and Innovation, International Medical University, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
| | - Bapi Gorain
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia.
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Santos SD, Xavier M, Leite DM, Moreira DA, Custódio B, Torrado M, Castro R, Leiro V, Rodrigues J, Tomás H, Pêgo AP. PAMAM dendrimers: blood-brain barrier transport and neuronal uptake after focal brain ischemia. J Control Release 2018; 291:65-79. [PMID: 30308255 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Drug delivery to the central nervous system is restricted by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, with the onset of stroke, the BBB becomes leaky, providing a window of opportunity to passively target the brain. Here, cationic poly(amido amine) (PAMAM) dendrimers of different generations were functionalized with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to reduce cytotoxicity and prolong blood circulation half-life, aiming for a safe in vivo drug delivery system in a stroke scenario. Rhodamine B isothiocyanate (RITC) was covalently tethered to the dendrimer backbone and used as a small surrogate drug as well as for tracking purposes. The biocompatibility of PAMAM was markedly increased by PEGylation as a function of dendrimer generation and degree of functionalization. The PEGylated RITC-modified dendrimers did not affect the integrity of an in vitro BBB model. Additionally, the functionalized dendrimers remained safe when in contact with the bEnd.3 cells and rat primary astrocytes composing the in vitro BBB model after hypoxia induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation. Modification with PEG also decreased the interaction and uptake by endothelial cells of PAMAM, indicating that the transport across a leaky BBB due to focal brain ischemia would be facilitated. Next, the functionalized dendrimers were tested in contact with red blood cells showing no haemolysis for the PEGylated PAMAM, in contrast to the unmodified dendrimer. Interestingly, the PEG-modified dendrimers reduced blood clotting, which may be an added beneficial function in the context of stroke. The optimized PAMAM formulation was intravenously administered in mice after inducing permanent focal brain ischemia. Twenty-four hours after administration, dendrimers could be detected in the brain, including in neurons of the ischemic cortex. Our results suggest that the proposed formulation has the potential for becoming a successful delivery vector for therapeutic application to the injured brain after stroke reaching the ischemic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia D Santos
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Miguel Xavier
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Diana M Leite
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Débora A Moreira
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Custódio
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Marília Torrado
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Castro
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, MMRG, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Victoria Leiro
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - João Rodrigues
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, MMRG, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Helena Tomás
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, MMRG, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Ana P Pêgo
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; FEUP - Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, R. de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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Santos SD, Xavier M, Leite DM, Moreira DA, Custódio B, Torrado M, Castro R, Leiro V, Rodrigues J, Tomás H, Pêgo AP. PAMAM dendrimers: blood-brain barrier transport and neuronal uptake after focal brain ischemia. J Control Release 2018. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Polyamidoamine Dendrimers for Enhanced Solubility of Small Molecules and Other Desirable Properties for Site Specific Delivery: Insights from Experimental and Computational Studies. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23061419. [PMID: 29895742 PMCID: PMC6100328 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23061419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical applications of many small molecules are limited due to poor solubility and lack of controlled release besides lack of other desirable properties. Experimental and computational studies have reported on the therapeutic potential of polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers as solubility enhancers in pre-clinical and clinical settings. Besides formulation strategies, factors such as pH, PAMAM dendrimer generation, PAMAM dendrimer concentration, nature of the PAMAM core, special ligand and surface modifications of PAMAM dendrimer have an influence on drug solubility and other recommendable pharmacological properties. This review, therefore, compiles the recently reported applications of PAMAM dendrimers in pre-clinical and clinical uses as enhancers of solubility and other desirable properties such as sustained and controlled release, bioavailability, bio-distribution, toxicity reduction or enhancement, and targeted delivery of small molecules with emphasis on cancer treatment.
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Yoyen-Ermis D, Ozturk-Atar K, Kursunel MA, Aydin C, Ozkazanc D, Gurbuz MU, Uner A, Tulu M, Calis S, Esendagli G. Tumor-Induced Myeloid Cells Are Reduced by Gemcitabine-Loaded PAMAM Dendrimers Decorated with Anti-Flt1 Antibody. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:1526-1533. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b01075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Digdem Yoyen-Ermis
- Cancer Institute, Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Kivilcim Ozturk-Atar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Hacettepe University, 06230 Ankara, Turkey
| | - M. Alper Kursunel
- Cancer Institute, Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Cisel Aydin
- Medical Faculty, Department of Pathology, Hacettepe University, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Didem Ozkazanc
- Cancer Institute, Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Ulvi Gurbuz
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Yıldız Technical University, 34349 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aysegul Uner
- Medical Faculty, Department of Pathology, Hacettepe University, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Metin Tulu
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Yıldız Technical University, 34349 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sema Calis
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Hacettepe University, 06230 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Gunes Esendagli
- Cancer Institute, Department of Basic Oncology, Hacettepe University, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
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Khutale GV, Casey A. Synthesis and characterization of a multifunctional gold-doxorubicin nanoparticle system for pH triggered intracellular anticancer drug release. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2017; 119:372-380. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2017.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Alibolandi M, Taghdisi SM, Ramezani P, Hosseini Shamili F, Farzad SA, Abnous K, Ramezani M. Smart AS1411-aptamer conjugated pegylated PAMAM dendrimer for the superior delivery of camptothecin to colon adenocarcinoma in vitro and in vivo. Int J Pharm 2017; 519:352-364. [PMID: 28126548 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the current study camptothecin-loaded pegylated PAMAM dendrimer were synthesized and were functionalized with AS1411 anti-nucleolin aptamers for site-specific targeting against colorectal cancer cells which over expresses nucleolin receptors. The morphological properties and size dispersity of the prepared nanoparticles were evaluated using transmission electron microscope (TEM) and DLS. The drug-loading content and encapsulation efficiency were obtained 8.1% and 93.67% respectively. The in vitro release of camptothecin from the formulation was provided the sustained release of encapsulated camptothecin during 4days. Comparative in vitro cytotoxicity experiments demonstrated that the targeted camptothecin loaded-pegylated dendrimers had higher antiproliferation activity, towards nucleolin-positive HT29 and C26 colorectal cancer cells than nucleolin-negative CHO cell line. Fluorscence microscopy and flow cytometry also confirmed the enhanced cellular uptake of AS1411 targeted pegylated-dendrimer. In vivo study in C26 tumor-bearing BALB/C mice revealed that the AS1411-functionalized camptothecin loaded pegylated dendrimers improved antitumor activity and survival rate of the encapsulated camptothecin. Conjugation of AS1411 aptamer to the camptothecin loaded-pegylated dendrimer surface provides site-specific delivery of camptothecin, inhibit C26 tumor growth in vivo and significantly decrease systemic toxicity. These results suggested that the new nucleolin-targeted pegylated PAMAM dendrimer as a delivery system for camptothecin have the potential for the treatment of nucleolin-overexpressed colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Alibolandi
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed Mohammad Taghdisi
- Targeted Drug Delivery Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Pouria Ramezani
- Student Research Committee, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Fazileh Hosseini Shamili
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Sara Amel Farzad
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Khalil Abnous
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Ramezani
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Nanotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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