Mini-dystrophin expression down-regulates overactivation of G protein-mediated IP3 signaling pathway in dystrophin-deficient muscle cells

Selenoprotein SELENOK Enhances the Migration and Phagocytosis of Microglial Cells by Increasing the Cytosolic Free Ca2+ Level Resulted from the Up-Regulation of IP3R

Enhancing the migration and phagocytosis of microglial cells is of great significance for the reducing of the risk of the neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). The effect of mouse selenoprotein K (mSELENOK) on the migration and phagocytosis of BV2 microglial cells and its mechanism were studied. The results showed that the over-expression of mSELENOK can increase the migratory and phagocytic abilities of the microglial cells, while the knockdown of mSELENOK can decrease the migratory and phagocytic abilities of the cells. The cytosolic free Ca²⁺ level and inositol trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R) mRNA transcript and protein expression were also increased significantly as the consequence of the over-expression of mSELENOK in the microglial cells. On the contrary, the level of cytosolic free Ca²⁺ and the mRNA transcript and protein expression of IP₃R in mSELENOK knockdown cells were decreased significantly. 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), an antagonist of IP₃R, could prevent the increased migration, phagocytosis, and cytosolic free Ca²⁺ level of mSELENOK over-expressed microglial cells, and knockdown of IP₃R₃ could reduce the increased cytosolic Ca²⁺ level in mSELENOK over-expressed microglial cells. Further studies revealed that selenium supplement (Na₂SeO₃) can increase the expression of mSELENOK in microglial cells significantly. In summary, these data suggest that mSELENOK can increase cytosolic free Ca²⁺ level of microglial cells by up-regulating the expression of IP₃R, thus enhancing the migration and phagocytosis of microglial cells. Our results indicated that mSELENOK is an important selenoprotein, which plays a role in trace element selenium's functions and can enhance the migration and phagocytosis of microglial cells.

Optogenetic approach for targeted activation of global calcium transients in differentiated C2C12 myotubes

Excitation-contraction coupling in muscle cells is initiated by a restricted membrane depolarization delimited within the neuromuscular junction. This targeted depolarization triggers an action potential that propagates and induces a global cellular calcium response and a consequent contraction. To date, numerous studies have investigated this excitation-calcium response coupling by using different techniques to depolarize muscle cells. However, none of these techniques mimic the temporal and spatial resolution of membrane depolarization observed in the neuromuscular junction. By using optogenetics in C2C12 muscle cells, we developed a technique to study the calcium response following membrane depolarization induced by photostimulations of membrane surface similar or narrower than the neuromuscular junction area. These stimulations coupled to confocal calcium imaging generate a global cellular calcium response that is the consequence of a membrane depolarization propagation. In this context, this technique provides an interesting, contactless and relatively easy way of investigation of calcium increase/release as well as calcium decrease/re-uptake triggered by a propagated membrane depolarization.

Phosphoinositides in Ca(2+) signaling and excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle: an old player and newcomers

Since the postulate, 30 years ago, that phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P 2) as the precursor of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P 3) would be critical for skeletal muscle excitation-contraction (EC) coupling, the issue of whether phosphoinositides (PtdInsPs) may have something to do with Ca(2+) signaling in muscle raised limited interest, if any. In recent years however, the PtdInsP world has expanded considerably with new functions for PtdIns(4,5)P 2 but also with functions for the other members of the PtdInsP family. In this context, the discovery that genetic deficiency in a PtdInsP phosphatase has dramatic consequences on Ca(2+) homeostasis in skeletal muscle came unanticipated and opened up new perspectives in regards to how PtdInsPs modulate muscle Ca(2+) signaling under normal and disease conditions. This review intends to make an update of the established, the questioned, and the unknown regarding the role of PtdInsPs in skeletal muscle Ca(2+) homeostasis and EC coupling, with very specific emphasis given to Ca(2+) signals in differentiated skeletal muscle fibers.

Genetic evidence in the mouse solidifies the calcium hypothesis of myofiber death in muscular dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy (MD) refers to a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of degenerative muscle disorders characterized by progressive muscle wasting and often premature death. Although the primary defect underlying most forms of MD typically results from a loss of sarcolemmal integrity, the secondary molecular mechanisms leading to muscle degeneration and myofiber necrosis is debated. One hypothesis suggests that elevated or dysregulated cytosolic calcium is the common transducing event, resulting in myofiber necrosis in MD. Previous measurements of resting calcium levels in myofibers from dystrophic animal models or humans produced equivocal results. However, recent studies in genetically altered mouse models have largely solidified the calcium hypothesis of MD, such that models with artificially elevated calcium in skeletal muscle manifest fulminant dystrophic-like disease, whereas models with enhanced calcium clearance or inhibited calcium influx are resistant to myofiber death and MD. Here, we will review the field and the recent cadre of data from genetically altered mouse models, which we propose have collectively mostly proven the hypothesis that calcium is the primary effector of myofiber necrosis in MD. This new consensus on calcium should guide future selection of drugs to be evaluated in clinical trials as well as gene therapy-based approaches.

Expression and function of purinergic P2Y12 receptors in rat trigeminal ganglion neurons

Purinergic receptors play key signaling roles in neuropathic pain in the orofacial region, which is innervated by trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. The neuropathology of purinergic P2Y12 receptors is well characterized in glia; however, their physiological role in TG neurons remains to be fully elucidated. The present study investigated the expression and function of P2Y12 receptors in rat TG neurons. P2Y12 receptor immunoreactivity was intense in the soma, dendrites, and axons, and colocalized with a pan-neuronal marker, neurofilament H, isolectin B4, and substance P. In the presence of extracellular Ca(2+), 2-methylthio-ADP (an agonist of P2Y1, 12, 13 receptors) transiently increased intracellular free Ca(2+) concentrations ([Ca(2+)]i), an effect that was abolished by P2Y12 receptor antagonists. In the absence of extracellular Ca(2+), ryanodine receptor/channel inhibitors diminished the 2-methylthio-ADP-induced increases in [Ca(2+)]i. A sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA) inhibitor gradually increased [Ca(2+)]i, and after a plateau, application of 2-MeS-ADP induced a rapid and transient, but additive increase in [Ca(2+)]i. An adenylate cyclase inhibitor transiently increased [Ca(2+)]i, while a phosphodiesterase inhibitor prevented the 2-methylthio-ADP-induced increase in [Ca(2+)]i. Our study shows that P2Y12 receptors are expressed in TG neurons, and act via a cAMP-dependent pathway to release intracellular Ca(2+) from ryanodine-sensitive Ca(2+) stores.

Dysregulation of calcium homeostasis in muscular dystrophies

Muscular dystrophies are a group of diseases characterised by the primary wasting of skeletal muscle, which compromises patient mobility and in the most severe cases originate a complete paralysis and premature death. Existing evidence implicates calcium dysregulation as an underlying crucial event in the pathophysiology of several muscular dystrophies, such as dystrophinopathies, calpainopathies or myotonic dystrophy among others. Duchenne muscular dystrophy is the most frequent myopathy in childhood, and calpainopathy or LGMD2A is the most common form of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, whereas myotonic dystrophy is the most frequent inherited muscle disease worldwide. In this review, we summarise recent advances in our understanding of calcium ion cycling through the sarcolemma, the sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, and its involvement in the pathogenesis of these dystrophies. We also discuss some of the clinical implications of recent findings regarding Ca2+ handling as well as novel approaches to treat muscular dystrophies targeting Ca2+ regulatory proteins.

Phosphorylation within the cysteine-rich region of dystrophin enhances its association with β-dystroglycan and identifies a potential novel therapeutic target for skeletal muscle wasting

Mutations in dystrophin lead to Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which is among the most common human genetic disorders. Dystrophin nucleates assembly of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC), and a defective DGC disrupts an essential link between the intracellular cytoskeleton and the basal lamina, leading to progressive muscle wasting. In vitro studies have suggested that dystrophin phosphorylation may affect interactions with actin or syntrophin, yet whether this occurs in vivo or affects protein function remains unknown. Utilizing nanoflow liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, we identified 18 phosphorylated residues within endogenous dystrophin. Mutagenesis revealed that phosphorylation at S3059 enhances the dystrophin-dystroglycan interaction and 3D modeling utilizing the Rosetta software program provided a structural model for how phosphorylation enhances this interaction. These findings demonstrate that phosphorylation is a key mechanism regulating the interaction between dystrophin and the DGC and reveal that posttranslational modification of a single amino acid directly modulates the function of dystrophin.

Phospholipase C signaling tonically represses basal atrial natriuretic factor secretion from the atria of the heart

The cardiac hormone atrial natriuretic factor (ANF or ANP) plays significant, well-established roles in a large number of physiological and pathophysiological processes, including water and electrolyte balance, blood pressure regulation, and cardiovascular growth. Understanding the regulation of its production and secretion by atrial cardiomyocytes is incomplete. We have previously established a significant role of G(i/o) protein signaling in modulating ANF secretion as promoted by stretch of the atrial myocardium. In the present study, we investigated the role of G(q) protein signaling and its relationship to G(i/o) protein signaling using pharmacological manipulation of proximal effectors of G(αq) in an ex vivo model of spontaneously beating rat atria. Phospholipase C (PLC) and protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors dramatically increased basal secretion of ANF. Furthermore, although atrial wall stretch is a potent stimulus for secretion, stretch unexpectedly reduced ANF secretion to basal levels under PLC and PKC inhibitory conditions. Inhibition of the inositol triphosphate receptor did not appear to affect basal secretion but dose-dependently blocked stretch-secretion coupling. The results obtained demonstrate that the PLC and PKC signaling cascades play important albeit unexpected roles in the regulation of basal and stimulated ANF secretion and suggest interplay between the G(q) and G(i/o) protein signaling pathways.

Juxtaglomerular cell CaSR stimulation decreases renin release via activation of the PLC/IP(3) pathway and the ryanodine receptor

The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is a G-coupled protein expressed in renal juxtaglomerular (JG) cells. Its activation stimulates calcium-mediated decreases in cAMP content and inhibits renin release. The postreceptor pathway for the CaSR in JG cells is unknown. In parathyroids, CaSR acts through G(q) and/or G(i). Activation of G(q) stimulates phospholipase C (PLC), and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)), releasing calcium from intracellular stores. G(i) stimulation inhibits cAMP formation. In afferent arterioles, the ryanodine receptor (RyR) enhances release of stored calcium. We hypothesized JG cell CaSR activation inhibits renin via the PLC/IP(3) and also RyR activation, increasing intracellular calcium, suppressing cAMP formation, and inhibiting renin release. Renin release from primary cultures of isolated mouse JG cells (n = 10) was measured. The CaSR agonist cinacalcet decreased renin release 56 ± 7% of control (P < 0.001), while the PLC inhibitor U73122 reversed cinacalcet inhibition of renin (104 ± 11% of control). The IP(3) inhibitor 2-APB also reversed inhibition of renin from 56 ± 6 to 104 ± 11% of control (P < 0.001). JG cells were positively labeled for RyR, and blocking RyR reversed CaSR-mediated inhibition of renin from 61 ± 8 to 118 ± 22% of control (P < 0.01). Combining inhibition of IP(3) and RyR was not additive. G(i) inhibition with pertussis toxin plus cinacalcet did not reverse renin inhibition (65 ± 12 to 41 ± 8% of control, P < 0.001). We conclude stimulating JG cell CaSR activates G(q), initiating the PLC/IP(3) pathway, activating RyR, increasing intracellular calcium, and resulting in calcium-mediated renin inhibition.

Negative modulation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate type 1 receptor expression prevents dystrophin-deficient muscle cells death

Evidence for a modulatory effect of cyclosporin A (CsA) on calcium signaling and cell survival in dystrophin-deficient cells is presented. Our previous works strongly supported the hypothesis of an overactivation of Ca2+ release via inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors (IP3R) in dystrophin-deficient cells, both during membrane depolarization and at rest, through spontaneous Ca2+ release events. Forced expression of mini-dystrophin in these cells contributed, during stimulation and in resting condition, to the recovery of a controlled calcium homeostasis. In the present work, we demonstrate that CsA exposure displayed a dual-modulator effect on calcium signaling in dystrophin-deficient cells. Short-time incubation induced a decrease of IP3-dependent calcium release, leading to patterns of release similar to those observed in myotubes expressing mini-dystrophin, whereas long-time incubation reduced the expression of the type I of IP3 receptors (IP3R-1) RNA levels. Moreover, both IP3R-1 knockdown and blockade through 2-aminoethoxydiphenyle borate or CsA induced improved survival of dystrophin-deficient myotubes, demonstrating the cell death dependence on the IP3-dependent calcium signaling as well as the protective effect of CsA. Inhibition of the IP3 pathway could be a very interesting approach for reducing the natural cell death of dystrophin-deficient cells in development.

Lack of CFTR in skeletal muscle predisposes to muscle wasting and diaphragm muscle pump failure in cystic fibrosis mice

Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients often have reduced mass and strength of skeletal muscles, including the diaphragm, the primary muscle of respiration. Here we show that lack of the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) plays an intrinsic role in skeletal muscle atrophy and dysfunction. In normal murine and human skeletal muscle, CFTR is expressed and co-localized with sarcoplasmic reticulum-associated proteins. CFTR-deficient myotubes exhibit augmented levels of intracellular calcium after KCl-induced depolarization, and exposure to an inflammatory milieu induces excessive NF-kB translocation and cytokine/chemokine gene upregulation. To determine the effects of an inflammatory environment in vivo, sustained pulmonary infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa was produced, and under these conditions diaphragmatic force-generating capacity is selectively reduced in Cftr(-/-) mice. This is associated with exaggerated pro-inflammatory cytokine expression as well as upregulation of the E3 ubiquitin ligases (MuRF1 and atrogin-1) involved in muscle atrophy. We conclude that an intrinsic alteration of function is linked to the absence of CFTR from skeletal muscle, leading to dysregulated calcium homeostasis, augmented inflammatory/atrophic gene expression signatures, and increased diaphragmatic weakness during pulmonary infection. These findings reveal a previously unrecognized role for CFTR in skeletal muscle function that may have major implications for the pathogenesis of cachexia and respiratory muscle pump failure in CF patients.

Distribution of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors in rat osteoclasts

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) receptors (IP₃Rs) are Ca²⁺ channels that localize to intracellular Ca²⁺ stores such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Recently, IP₃Rs were found to participate in the formation of the cytoskeleton and cellular adhesions. In this study, we examined the cellular localization of type I, II, and III IP₃Rs to assess their role in cellular adhesion in rat osteoclasts. Rat bone marrow cells were cultured in α-MEM with 10% fetal bovine serum, M-CSF, RANKL, and 1,25(OH)₂D₃ for 1 week to promote osteoclast formation. Type I, II, and III IP₃R expression in the osteoclasts was then examined by RT-PCR. Double-staining was performed using antibodies against type I, II, and III IP₃Rs and DiOC₆, an ER marker, or TRITC-phalloidin, an actin filament marker. Expression of all three IP₃Rs was detected in the newly formed osteoclasts; however, the localization of the type I and II IP₃Rs was predominantly close to nuclear, and possibly colocalized with the ER, while the type III IP₃Rs were localized to the ER and podosomes, actin-rich adhesion structures in osteoclasts. These findings suggest that type III IP₃Rs are associated with osteoclast adhesion.

Endoplasmic reticulum is a key organella in bradykinin-triggered ATP release from cultured smooth muscle cells

ATP has broad functions as an autocrine/paracrine molecule. The mode of ATP release and its intracellular source, however, are little understood. Here we show that bradykinin via B(2)-receptor stimulation induces the extracellular release of ATP via the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P(3)]-signaling pathway in cultured taenia coli smooth muscle cells. It was found that bradykinin also increased the production of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) and 2-APB-inhibitable [Ca(2+)](i). The evoked release of ATP was suppressed by the Ca(2+)-channel blockers, nifedipine, and verapamil. Moreover, the extracellular release of ATP was elicited by photoliberation of Ins(1,4,5)P(3). Bradykinin caused a quick and transient accumulation of intracellular ATP from cells treated with 1% perchloric acid solution (PCA), but not with the cell lysis buffer. Peak accumulation was prevented by 2-APB and thapsigargin, but not by nifedipine or verapamil, inhibitors of extracellular release of ATP. These findings suggest that bradykinin elicits the extracellular release of ATP that is mediated by the Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-induced Ca(2+) signaling and, finally, leads to a Ca(2+)-dependent export of ATP from the cells. Furthermore, the bradykinin-induced transient accumulation of ATP in the cells treated with PCA may imply a possible release of ATP from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Regulation of capacitative calcium entries by α1‐syntrophin: association of TRPC1 with dystrophin complex and the PDZ domain of α1‐syntrophin

Calcium mishandling in Duchenne dystrophic muscle suggested that dystrophin, a membrane-associated cytoskeleton protein, might regulate calcium signaling cascade such as calcium influx pathway. It was previously shown that abnormal calcium entries involve uncontrolled stretch-activated currents and store-operated Ca2+ currents supported by TRPC1 channels. Moreover, our recent work demonstrated that reintroduction of minidystrophin in dystrophic myotubes restores normal capacitative calcium entries (CCEs). However, until now, no molecular link between the dystrophin complex and calcium entry channels has been described. This study is the first to show by coimmunoprecipitation assays the molecular association of TRPC1 with dystrophin and alpha1-syntrophin in muscle cells. TRPC1 was also associated with alpha1-syntrophin in dystrophic muscle cells independently of dystrophin. Furthermore, glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays showed that TRPC1 binds to the alpha1-syntrophin PDZ domain. Transfected recombinant alpha1-syntrophin formed a complex with TRPC1 channels and restored normal CCEs in dystrophic muscle cells. We suggest that normal regulation of CCEs in skeletal muscle depends on the association between TRPC1 channels and alpha1-syntrophin that may anchor the store-operated channels to the dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC). The loss of this molecular association could participate in the calcium alterations observed in dystrophic muscle cells. This study provides a new model for the regulation of calcium influx by interaction with the scaffold of the DAPC in muscle cells.

New insights in the regulation of calcium transfers by muscle dystrophin-based cytoskeleton: implications in DMD

Calcium mishandling in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) suggested that dystrophin, a membrane-associated cytoskeleton protein, may regulate calcium-signalling cascades such as calcium entries. Calcium overload in human DMD myotubes is dependent on their contractile activity suggesting the involvement of channels being activated during contraction and/or calcium release. Forced expression of mini-dystrophin in dystrophin-deficient myotubes, reactivates appropriate sarcolemmal expression of dystrophin-associated proteins and restores normal calcium handling in the cytosol. Furthermore, the recombinant mini-dystrophin reduced the store-operated calcium influx across the sarcolemma, and the mitochondrial calcium uptake during this influx. A slow component of calcium release dependent on IP3R, as well as the production of IP3, were also reduced to normal levels by expression of mini-dystrophin. Our studies provide a new model for the convergent regulation of transmembrane calcium influx and IP3-dependent calcium release by the dystrophin-based cytoskeleton (DBC). We also suggest molecular association of such channels with DBC which may provide the scaffold for assembling a multiprotein-signalling complex that modulates the channel activity. This suggests that the loss of this molecular association could participate in the alteration of calcium homeostasis observed in DMD muscle cells.

Mini-dystrophin expression down-regulates IP3-mediated calcium release events in resting dystrophin-deficient muscle cells

We present here evidence for the enhancement, at rest, of an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)–mediated calcium signaling pathway in myotubes from dystrophin-deficient cell lines (SolC1(−)) as compared to a cell line from the same origin but transfected with mini-dystrophin (SolD(+)). With confocal microscopy, the number of sites discharging calcium (release site density [RSD]) was quantified and found more elevated in SolC1(−) than in SolD(+) myotubes. Variations of membrane potential had no significant effect on this difference, and higher resting [Ca²⁺]i in SolC1(−) (Marchand, E., B. Constantin, H. Balghi, M.C. Claudepierre, A. Cantereau, C. Magaud, A. Mouzou, G. Raymond, S. Braun, and C. Cognard. 2004. Exp. Cell Res. 297:363–379) cannot explain alone higher RSD. The exposure with SR Ca²⁺ channel inhibitors (ryanodine and 2-APB) and phospholipase C inhibitor (U73122) significantly reduced RSD in both cell types but with a stronger effect in dystrophin-deficient SolC1(−) myotubes. Immunocytochemistry allowed us to localize ryanodine receptors (RyRs) as well as IP3 receptors (IP3Rs), IP3R-1 and IP3R-2 isoforms, indicating the presence of both RyRs-dependent and IP3-dependent release systems in both cells. We previously reported evidence for the enhancement, through a Gi protein, of the IP3-mediated calcium signaling pathway in SolC1(−) as compared to SolD(+) myotubes during a high K⁺ stimulation (Balghi, H., S. Sebille, B. Constantin, S. Patri, V. Thoreau, L. Mondin, E. Mok, A. Kitzis, G. Raymond, and C. Cognard. 2006. J. Gen. Physiol. 127:171–182). Here we show that, at rest, these regulation mechanisms are also involved in the modulation of calcium release activities. The enhancement of resting release activity may participate in the calcium overload observed in dystrophin-deficient myotubes, and our findings support the hypothesis of the regulatory role of mini-dystrophin on intracellular signaling.