Immediate Effect of Slow PaceBhastrika Pranayamaon Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

Deep abdominal breathing reduces heart rate and symptoms during orthostatic challenge in patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

This study investigated the effects of deep abdominal breathing on cardiovascular parameters and symptoms in patients with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) during head-up tilt-table (HUT) challenge.

METHODS

Thirty POTS patients completed two consecutive rounds of 10-min HUT in a crossover design. One round was HUT without intervention, and one round combined the HUT with deep breathing at a rate of 6 breaths/min. Cardiovascular parameters, including mean blood pressure and maximum and mean heart rate (HR), were measured supine and standing. Symptoms were assessed using the Vanderbilt Orthostatic Symptom Score (VOSS).

RESULTS

During the breathing technique, the mean HR increase was -7.35 bpm (95% confidence interval [CI] = -11.71 to -2.98), and the maximum HR increase was -6.27 bpm (95% CI = -11.85 to -0.68, p = 0.041), significantly lower compared to normal breathing. Additionally, improvements were observed in all absolute cardiovascular parameters during standing, with VOSS symptoms simultaneously and significantly decreasing by -5.38 (95% CI = -10.43 to -0.36).

CONCLUSIONS

Slow deep abdominal breathing can act as a simple technique to reduce the standing HR increase upon HUT in patients with POTS. This suggests that modulation of the cardiopulmonary neurocircuits and the respiratory pump may reduce HR increase and symptoms in patients with POTS. The findings of this study highlight the use of a safe, zero-cost, and simple behavioral tool to suggest to POTS patients for symptom relief apart from standard treatment. The observed improvements in cardiovascular parameters and symptoms offer a promising therapeutic approach for patients in times of inadequate treatment options.

Effect of online Kundalini Yoga mental health of university students during Covid-19 pandemic: A randomized controlled trial

University students were at an increased risk for psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a randomized controlled trial, we examined the efficacy of an online Kundalini Yoga intervention on students' psychological functioning. Healthy university students (N = 106) were randomly assigned to a Kundalini Yoga group, an active control group, or a passive control group in a 1:1:1 ratio. The experimental group attended six Yoga sessions over 6 weeks and the active control group attended to six autogenic relaxation sessions over 6 weeks. All participants completed the study protocol, which involved answering questionnaires related to psychological distress, emotion regulation, self-compassion, self-concept, spiritual well-being, and subjective happiness at three different time points: baseline, at the end of the intervention, and at 1-month follow-up. Results showed that Yoga contributed to improving self-compassion, extrinsic affect improving, and personal and communal spiritual well-being, in comparison to the control groups.

Therapeutic role of yoga in hypertension

Systemic hypertension is an established risk factor for coronary artery disease and cerebrovascular accident and control of blood pressure reduces the risk of a major cardiovascular event. Both non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment options are available to treat hypertension. Yoga, recently received more attention as a treatment modality for various lifestyle disorders, even though practiced in India since ancient times. In this review, we are analyzing the role of yoga in the treatment of systemic hypertension.

Effect of meditation and relaxation therapy on preoperative anxiety and stress in oral squamous cell carcinoma patients scheduled for oral and maxillofacial surgery: An experimental study

Context

The diagnosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma [OSCC] and its treatment phase is emotionally demanding for the patient and challenging for the surgeon. The induction of stress and anxiety is unavoidable in these patients. It becomes very important for the patient to have psychological as well as physical stability during this treatment phase. Various studies have reported the beneficial effect of meditation along with relaxation therapy on healthy individuals but the beneficial effect of meditation and relaxation therapy [MRT] to reduce stress and anxiety preoperatively in OSCC patients has not been reported in scientific literature.

Aim

The aim of this study was to study the effect of MRT on preoperative anxiety and stress in OSCC patients undergoing for oral and maxillofacial surgery.

Settings and Design

An experimental, parallel study design was carried out with randomization of patients into experimental[25] and control group[25] with allocation ratio 1:1 in 50 patients diagnosed with OSCC [stage II or III] scheduled for oral and maxillofacial surgery with general anesthesia.

Materials and Methods

The biopsy which was the prerequisite for the diagnosis was taken. Twenty-one days before surgery in experimental group, patients were oriented about meditation and relaxation exercises. The reorientation of MRT was done from the day of admission twice a day till the day of surgery. Physiological parameters for stress and anxiety like heart rate [HR], blood pressure [BP], pulse rate [PR], and respiratory rate [RR] were evaluated on 1st day of MRT at 9 am and on the day of surgery. The serum cortisol which was quantitative parameter for stress was evaluated 1st day of MRT at 9 am fasting and on the day of surgery. The qualitative analysis for anxiety was done preoperatively using visual analog scale on the 1st day before MRT and compared with the values on the day of surgery after MRT at a specific time.

Statistical Analysis

Paired t-test analysis was used intragroup whereas unpaired t-test was used intergroup between experimental and control groups with significance at P = 0.05 and highly significant at P = 0.0001.

Results

The serum cortisol was significantly less in the experimental group over control group with t = 7.04 and P = 0.0001. The systolic and diastolic BP, pulse rate, respiratory rate, and anxiety in the experimental group reported significantly less rate compared to the control group with t = 5.66, t = 22.2, t = 11.93, t = 27.71, and P = 0.0001.

Conclusion

In our study, MRT in the form of Sukhasana, Anulom Vilom, Omkar chanting, and Shavasana for 30 min twice daily has shown positive effect to reduce stress and anxiety. The serum cortisol as a quantitative parameter has been effectively evaluated in this benchmark study.

High ventilation breathwork practices: An overview of their effects, mechanisms, and considerations for clinical applications

High Ventilation Breathwork (HVB) refers to practices employing specific volitional manipulation of breathing, with a long history of use to relieve various forms of psychological distress. This paper seeks to offer a consolidative insight into potential clinical application of HVB as a treatment of psychiatric disorders. We thus review the characteristic phenomenological and neurophysiological effects of these practices to inform their mechanism of therapeutic action, safety profiles and future clinical applications. Clinical observations and data from neurophysiological studies indicate that HVB is associated with extraordinary changes in subjective experience, as well as with profound effects on central and autonomic nervous systems functions through modulation of neurometabolic parameters and interoceptive sensory systems. This growing evidence base may guide how the phenomenological effects of HVB can be understood, and potentially harnessed in the context of such volitional perturbation of psychophysiological state. Reports of putative beneficial effects for trauma-related, affective, and somatic disorders invite further research to obtain detailed mechanistic knowledge, and rigorous clinical testing of these potential therapeutic uses.

Slow Breathing Reduces Biomarkers of Stress in Response to a Virtual Reality Active Shooter Training Drill

Tactical occupations regularly encounter life-threatening situations while on duty. Although these occupations are often trained to utilize slow breathing (SB) during intense stress, there is no evidence supporting the effects on markers of stress in response to a virtual reality active shooter training drill (VR-ASD). The purpose of the study was to determine the impact of acute SB on biomarkers of stress in response to a VR-ASD. Seventy-nine (n = 79) subjects performed either slow breathing method 1 (SB1), slow breathing method 2 (SB2), or normal breathing (control) for five minutes, both pre- and post-VR-ASD. Saliva samples were analyzed for stress markers, including α-amylase (sAA) and secretory immunoglobulin-A (SIgA). Both methods of SB resulted in significantly lower sAA concentrations at 5 (p < 0.001) and 30 min post-VR-ASD (SB1: p = 0.008; SB2: p < 0.001) compared to the control. In the control condition, the sAA concentrations were significantly elevated 5 min post-VR-ASD (p < 0.001) but did not change across time in SB1 or SB2 (p > 0.05). Thus, both SB1 and SB2 reduced the sAA response and resulted in lower concentrations post-VR-ASD. This study was pre-registered as a clinical trial ("Impact of Breathing Interventions on Stress Markers"; NCT05825846).

Evaluation of a tactile breath pacer for sleep problems: A mixed method pilot study

Sleep problems, like insomnia, are a prevalent condition associated with major health risks. Prevention and treatment of sleep problems are thus essential to preserve physical and mental health. Previous work supports the effectiveness of breathing guidance for sleep problems and recommends breathing exercises as an effective intervention for insomnia. While new technologies can support breathing guidance, such novel devices should be assessed for effectiveness and usability to facilitate implementation and continued use. The current pilot study investigates the acceptability and usability of a mobile tactile breathing device and explores its potential impact on subjective sleep quality. In this mixed-method pilot study, 39 participants tested the breathing device for one month in naturalistic circumstances. We collected their experiences, subjective sleep quality, and feedback regarding the usability of the device and the accompanying app through a survey in a pre-post design. The results show that the breathing device is an acceptable solution for sleep problems and participants particularly appreciate the standalone function and design. Nevertheless, important points of attention, such as the size of the device, were also identified. Explorative analyses suggest that subjective sleep quality improved after using the device and accompanying app. The current study supports the usability and acceptability of a tactile breath pacer and provides preliminary evidence supporting a positive impact of the technology on the sleep quality of participants. Recommendations for developers of breathing technologies and eHealth are devised based on the findings.

The effects of school‐based interventions on physiological stress in adolescents: A meta‐analysis

Chronic stress is associated with dysregulations in the physiological stress system, resulting in diverse negative developmental outcomes. Since adolescence is a period characterized by increased stress-sensitivity, and schools are an important environment for the developing adolescent, school-based interventions promoting psychosocial functioning are of particular interest to prevent adverse outcomes. The present study therefore aimed to investigate the effectiveness of such interventions on hypothalamic pituitary adrenal-axis (i.e., cortisol) and cardiovascular (i.e., blood pressure [BP] and heart rate [HR]/heart rate variability [HRV]) parameters of stress in adolescents, and examined moderators of effectiveness. The search resulted in the inclusion of k = 9 studies for cortisol, k = 16 studies for BP, and k = 20 studies for HR/HRV. The results indicated a significant small overall effect on reducing BP, but no significant effect for HR/HRV. For cortisol, large methodological variation in the few primary studies did not allow for quantitative analyses, but a qualitative review demonstrated inconsistent results. For BP and HR/HRV, larger effects were observed for intervention programs with a mindfulness and/or meditation component, for interventions without a cognitive-behavioural component and for interventions with a higher intensity. Providing adolescents with techniques to improve indicators of physiological stress may prevent emerging mental health problems.

Breath Tools: A Synthesis of Evidence-Based Breathing Strategies to Enhance Human Running

Running is among the most popular sporting hobbies and often chosen specifically for intrinsic psychological benefits. However, up to 40% of runners may experience exercise-induced dyspnoea as a result of cascading physiological phenomena, possibly causing negative psychological states or barriers to participation. Breathing techniques such as slow, deep breathing have proven benefits at rest, but it is unclear if they can be used during exercise to address respiratory limitations or improve performance. While direct experimental evidence is limited, diverse findings from exercise physiology and sports science combined with anecdotal knowledge from Yoga, meditation, and breathwork suggest that many aspects of breathing could be improved via purposeful strategies. Hence, we sought to synthesize these disparate sources to create a new theoretical framework called “Breath Tools” proposing breathing strategies for use during running to improve tolerance, performance, and lower barriers to long-term enjoyment.

Study of immediate neurological and autonomic changes during kapalbhati pranayama in yoga practitioners

Background:

Kapalbhati is a fast pace respiratory exercise or pranayam, which is supposed to be practiced by yogis to clean their brain. Pranayamas are well known to improve heart rate variability (HRV) ultimately leading to better autonomic functions. Other studies have observed the immediate effect of kapalbhati on various neurological (brain and spine) and autonomic functions, but their results are varied and inconclusive.

Objective:

The aim of this study is to find out the changes in HRV and brain waves during and after practice of kapalbhati as compared with the baseline values of different parameters.

Methods:

Various parameters were measured at baseline, during and after kapalbhati pranayam with the help of Dinamika HRV-Advanced HRV Test System, Moscow, Russia. Statistical analysis was accomplished employing repeated measures analysis of variance with Bonferroni post-hoc analysis and Holm’s multiple comparisons using the Version 28.0.0.0 of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (190) SPSS Inc., Chicago.

Results:

We found that during and after kapalbhati, changes in HRV were significant in time and frequency domain showing parasympathetic withdrawal and insignificant changes in brain waves as compared with reference point values.

Conclusion:

Kapalbhati is initially energizing, cleansing, and heating. There occurs parasympathetic withdrawal and sympathetic activation during pranayama. There is an increase gamma wave activation post pranayama showing control of the default mode network.

Singing at 0.1 Hz as a Resonance Frequency Intervention to Reduce Cardiovascular Stress Reactivity?

Slow breathing at 6 breaths per min (corresponding to ~ 0.1 Hz) has been found to benefit psychological and physical health. In this study, we aimed to examine if paced singing at 0.1 Hz has beneficial acute effects on physiological function as compared to slow breathing. Participants were randomized to one of four experimental interventions prior to performing a mental stress task: paced breathing at 0.1 Hz (n = 26), paced singing at 0.1 Hz (n = 26), spontaneous breathing (n = 24), or spontaneous singing (n = 25). Heart rate, heart rate variability in the low (LF-HRV) and high frequency (HF-HRV) domain, blood pressure and affective wellbeing were assessed. As expected, both paced breathing and paced singing resulted in elevated LF-HRV. Moreover, both singing groups evidenced increases in heart rate, blood pressure and positive affect, thus indicating elevated sympathetic activation. Breathing and singing at 0.1 Hz had no robust effect on cardiovascular stress reactivity. Findings suggest that paced singing could constitute a promising alternative to slow paced breathing as it increases cardiovascular coherence, although more studies are needed to elucidate whether slow breathing and/or singing could ameliorate acute stress responses.

The Effect of Pranayamic Breathing as a Positive Psychology Exercise on Foreign Language Learning Anxiety and Test Anxiety Among Language Learners at Tertiary Level

This study investigated the impact of pranayamic breathing (PB) as a positive psychology exercise on mitigating foreign language anxiety (FLLA) and test anxiety (TA) of undergraduate English students studying at a Turkish university. Additionally, the study examined the effects of PB on academic achievement in listening and reading comprehension skills of the participants as well as exploring learners' and their instructor's perceptions of using PB techniques in their classrooms. The sample consisted of 140 sophomore English language learners. Two intact classes, each comprising 70 participants, were selected as the experimental and the control group using convenience sampling. Two basic PB techniques, Nadi Shodhana Pranayama and Bhramari Pranayama, were implemented to the experimental group on a weekly basis for a total of 7 weeks. In this mixed-method study, the quantitative data were gathered using English Language Learning Anxiety Scale, Foreign Language Test Anxiety Scale, and listening and reading achievement pre- and post-tests, while the qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews, and the teacher's reflective journal. The findings revealed that the implementation of positive psychology technique of pranayama breathing mitigated the FLLA and TA levels significantly and also improved listening and reading comprehension skills of the participants to a considerable extent. The findings also demonstrated that both the students and their instructor perceived PB implementation as a useful and a practical medium in alleviating the anxious feelings, promoting the general class atmosphere and regulating daily habits despite the implementational challenges shared by the instructor.

A Mechanistic Model for Yoga as a Preventive and Therapeutic Modality

Yoga is an ancient Indian technique of healthy living. Numerous studies have corroborated yoga's beneficial effects, including a favorable influence on autonomic function and negative emotions. Extensive research in the last few decades has revealed the critical role that yoga can play in eradicating stress. This has laid to the foundation for a scientific understanding of pathophysiological changes attributed to stress, particularly at the molecular and genetic levels. This primarily has helped understand the epigenetic and genetic mechanism at play to induce and alleviate stress, particularly those related to emotional aberrations. As research has indicated, negative emotions are translated into vascular inflammation appropriately accentuated by a sympathetic predominant autonomic function. This cascade is bolstered by multiple factors, including activation of “stressor” genes and elaborating hormones, including steroids with sometimes nocuous consequences, particularly when chronic. Yoga has been categorically found to have inhibited each and every one of these baneful effects of stress. In fact, it also changes the neuronal circuits that potentiate such a plethora of pathological changes. This, in turn, has accentuated yoga's relevance as a powerful preventive intervention in noncommunicable diseases (NCD). NCDs, including heart disease, stroke, and rheumatological disorders, are essentially inflammatory diseases that perpetuate inflammation in different beds like vascular or joint spaces. The precise mechanism by which yoga induces such beneficial changes is yet to be delineated. However, a cornucopia of pointers indicates that neural, endocrine, immunological, cellular, genetic, and epigenetic mechanisms are at play. This article attempts to cobble together newfangled research to delineate a medical model for this 5000-year-old practice from India. This is imperative, as a mechanistic model of this ancient-but-complex system would enable a more comprehensive understanding of its mechanism and reveal its yet-undiscovered positive health effects.

From Precision Metapharmacology to Patient Empowerment: Delivery of Self-Care Practices for Epilepsy, Pain, Depression and Cancer Using Digital Health Technologies

To improve long-term outcomes of therapies for chronic diseases, health promotion and lifestyle modifications are the most promising and sustainable strategies. In addition, advances in digital technologies provide new opportunities to address limitations of drug-based treatments, such as medication non-adherence, adverse effects, toxicity, drug resistance, drug shortages, affordability, and accessibility. Pharmaceutical drugs and biologics can be combined with digital health technologies, including mobile medical apps (digital therapeutics), which offer additional clinical benefits and cost-effectiveness. Promises of drug+digital combination therapies are recognized by pharmaceutical and digital health companies, opening opportunities for integrating pharmacotherapies with non-pharmacological interventions (metapharmacology). Herein we present unique features of digital health technologies which can deliver personalized self-care modalities such as breathing exercises, mindfulness meditation, yoga, physical activity, adequate sleep, listening to preferred music, forgiveness and gratitude. Clinical studies reveal how aforementioned complimentary practices may support treatments of epilepsy, chronic pain, depression, cancer, and other chronic diseases. This article also describes how digital therapies delivering “medicinal” self-care and other non-pharmacological interventions can also be personalized by accounting for: 1) genetic risks for comorbidities, 2) adverse childhood experiences, 3) increased risks for viral infections such as seasonal influenza, or COVID-19, and 4) just-in-time stressful and traumatic circumstances. Development and implementation of personalized pharmacological-behavioral combination therapies (precision metapharmacology) require aligning priorities of key stakeholders including patients, research communities, healthcare industry, regulatory and funding agencies. In conclusion, digital technologies enable integration of pharmacotherapies with self-care, lifestyle interventions and patient empowerment, while concurrently advancing patient-centered care, integrative medicine and digital health ecosystems.

Can Yogic Breathing Techniques Like Simha Kriya and Isha Kriya Regulate COVID-19-Related Stress?

The global impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is tremendous on human life, not only affecting the physical and mental health of population but also impacting the economic system of countries and individual itself. The present situation demands prompt response toward COVID-19 by equipping the humans with strategies to overcome the infection and stress associated with it. These strategies must not only be limited to preventive and therapeutic measures, but also aim at improving immunity and mental health. This can be achieved by yogic breathing techniques. In this perspective, we emphasize the importance of yogic breathing, Simha Kriya and Isha kriya, the simple yet effective breathing techniques.

Impact of Altered Breathing Patterns on Interaction of EEG and Heart Rate Variability

Background

Altered pattern of respiration has been shown to affect both the cardiac as well as cortical activity, which is the basis of central-autonomic dual interaction concept. On the other hand, effect of this association between altered breathing with slow cortical activity, that is, electroencephalography (EEG) theta waves (associated with learning and relaxed alertness) on the cardiac autonomic balance is largely unclear.

Objective

The study aims to understand this interaction in response to altered respiratory patterns, for example, voluntary apnea, bradypnea, and tachypnea in terms of EEG and heart rate variability (HRV) correlates in normal healthy subjects.

Methods

This study was conducted on 32 adult male subjects. EEG from F3, F4, P3, P4, O1 and O2 cortical areas and Lead II electrocardiography for HRV analysis was continuously recorded during aforesaid respiratory interventions. Power spectral analysis of EEG for theta waves and HRV measures, that is, RMSSD, pNN50, HF, LF, and LF/HF was calculated as % change taking resting value as 100%.

Results

Apnea caused decrease in theta power, whereas an increase in LF/HF was observed in HRV. Bradypnea on the other hand, did not elicit any significant change in power of theta waves. However, decreased RMSSD and pNN50 were observed in HRV. Tachypnea led to increase in theta power with HRV depicting significantly decreased RMSSD and pNN50. Besides, significant correlation between EEG and HRV measures was found during tachypnea, which shifted toward posterior cortical sites as compared to resting condition.

Conclusion

Various altered respiratory patterns caused either depressed parasympathetic or increased sympathetic output, whereas increased theta power along with posterior shift of correlation between theta power and HRV measures observed during post tachypnea might be due to involvement of global brain areas due to respiration-coupled neuronal activity. Thus, a definite link between cortical activity and autonomic output in relation to altered respiratory patterns may be suggested.

The Effects of Fast and Slow Yoga Breathing on Cerebral and Central Hemodynamics

BACKGROUND

Yoga breathing has shown to impose significant cardiovascular and psychological health benefits.

OBJECTIVE

The mechanism (s) responsible for these health benefits remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to assess the differences in cerebral and central hemodynamic responses following fast breathing (FB) and slow breathing (SB) protocols compared to breathing awareness (BA) as a control.

METHODS

Twenty healthy participants (10 males and 10 females) volunteered to take part in the study. Participants were between ages 18-55 years (group mean: 24 ± 5 years), with a height of 168.7 ± 9.8 cm and a weight of 70.16 ± 10.9 kg. A familiarization trial including FB and SB protocols were performed by each participant at least 24 h before the testing day. The breathing protocols were designed to achieve 6 breath/min for SB and ~ 120 breaths/min for FB.

RESULTS

FB resulted in an increase in both right prefrontal cortex (RPFC) and left prefrontal cortex (LPFC) hemoglobin difference (Hbdiff) (brain oxygenation) compared to BA (P < 0.05). FB resulted in an increased Hbdiff in LPFC compared to RPFC SB (P < 0.05). FB resulted in an increased Hbdiff in LPFC compared to SB (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

FB may be an effective yoga breathing technique for eliciting cerebral brain oxygenation indicated by increased Hbdiff. These results may be applicable to both healthy and clinical populations.

Changes in Heart Rate Variability after Yoga are Dependent on Heart Rate Variability at Baseline and during Yoga: A Study Showing Autonomic Normalization Effect in Yoga-Naïve and Experienced Subjects

Background:

Yoga therapy is widely applied to the maintenance of health and to treatment of various illnesses. Previous researches indicate the involvement of autonomic control in its effects, although the general agreement has not been reached regarding the acute modulation of autonomic function.

Aim:

The present study aimed at revealing the acute effect of yoga on the autonomic activity using heart rate variability (HRV) measurement.

Methods:

Twenty-seven healthy controls participated in the present study. Fifteen of them (39.5 ± 8.5 years old) were naïve and 12 (45.1 ± 7.0 years old) were experienced in yoga. Yoga skills included breath awareness, two types of asana, and two types of pranayama. HRV was measured at the baseline, during yoga, and at the resting state after yoga.

Results:

In both yoga-naïve and experienced participants, the changes in low-frequency (LF) component of HRV and its ratio to high-frequency (HF) component (LF/HF) after yoga were found to be correlated negatively with the baseline data. The changes in LF after yoga were also correlated with LF during yoga. The changes in HF as well as the raw HRV data after yoga were not related to the baseline HRV or the HRV during yoga.

Conclusion:

The results indicate that yoga leads to an increase in LF when LF is low and leads to a decrease in LF when it is high at the baseline. This normalization of LF is dependent on the autonomic modulation during yoga and may underlie the clinical effectiveness of yoga therapy both in yoga-naïve and experienced subjects.

Effect of Bhramari pranayama practice on simple reaction time in healthy adolescents - a randomized control trial

Objectives The improvement in the/reaction time is important, as it is an indicator of cognitive function. Therefore, there is a need, especially for adolescents in the form of techniques or courses that can improve the reaction time. Yoga was found to cause a better improvement in the health of the individuals. The present study intended to show the effects of Bhramari pranayama (Bhr.P) on reaction time in the healthy adolescents. Methods Of the 730 potential subjects screened, 520 apparently healthy adolescents randomly assigned to either the Bhr.P group (n-260) or control group (n-260). Bhr.P group practiced the bhramari pranayama for 3 days in a week for 6 months. The Auditory Reaction Time (ART) and the Visual Reaction Time (VRT) were assessed before and after Bhr.P pranayama practice. Results Bhr.P group shows significant shortening of response time in both VRT (from 267.13 ± 52.65 to 249.87 ± 39.41 ms) and ART (from 237.42 ± 48.12 to 227.91 ± 34.60 ms) after 6 months of Bhr.P practice. In control group subjects, no such significant changes were found (p > 0.05). Conclusions Shortening of RT implies an improvement in the information processing and reflexes. This beneficial effect of Bhr.P on reaction time can be used for improving cognitive function in the adolescents for their academic performances.

Effects of Yoga Respiratory Practice (Bhastrika pranayama) on Anxiety, Affect, and Brain Functional Connectivity and Activity: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Pranayama refers to a set of yoga breathing exercises. Recent evidence suggests that the practice of pranayama has positive effects on measures of clinical stress and anxiety. This study explored the impact of a Bhastrika pranayama training program on emotion processing, anxiety, and affect. We used a randomized controlled trial design with thirty healthy young adults assessed at baseline and after 4 weeks of pranayama practices. Two functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) protocols were used both at baseline and post-intervention: an emotion task as well as a resting-state acquisition. Our results suggest that pranayama significantly decreased states of anxiety and negative affect. The practice of pranayama also modulated the activity of brain regions involved in emotional processing, particularly the amygdala, anterior cingulate, anterior insula, and prefrontal cortex. Resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) showed significantly reduced functional connectivity involving the anterior insula and lateral portions of the prefrontal cortex. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in connectivity between the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and the right anterior insula were associated with changes in anxiety. Although it should be noted that these analyses were preliminary and exploratory, it provides the first evidence that 4 weeks of B. pranayama significantly reduce the levels of anxiety and negative affect, and that these changes are associated with the modulation of activity and connectivity in brain areas involved in emotion processing, attention, and awareness. The study was registered at https://www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-2gv5c2/(RBR-2gv5c2).

The influence of mindfulness meditation on inattention and physiological markers of stress on students with learning disabilities and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND

Over recent decades, the number of students diagnosed with learning disabilities and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorders has substantially increased. These students face various challenges and experience stress when receiving higher education.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to compare two non-pharmacological interventions: mindfulness and device-guided slow breathing, with a control group.

METHODS

Seventy-three students (age = 25.76, std. dev = 3.10) with attention problems and/or learning disabilities were randomly assigned to three groups: mindfulness meditation, device guided breathing practice and waiting-list control. Before and after the intervention physiological and psychological measures were collected.

RESULTS

Our results show that only mindfulness practice improved awareness of the present moment and decreased hyperactivity and inattention. Furthermore, both mindfulness and practice with device-guided breathing were associated with stress reduction, as shown by an increase in the galvanic skin response only in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of the study results may lead to an advance in treating attention deficit disorders and learning disabilities, especially among higher education students.

Mindfulness with paced breathing reduces blood pressure

Elevated blood pressure (BP) is a major avoidable cause of premature morbidity and mortality in the United States (US) and worldwide, due primarily to increased risks of stroke as well as myocardial infarction. While there are therapeutic lifestyle changes and adjunctive pharmacologic medications of proven benefit, recent interest has increasingly focused on Complementary and Alternative Medicine, in particular, Mind-Body Interventions. With respect to BP, it is tempting to speculate that mindfulness with paced breathing will have beneficial effects in the short run that may translate into lowered risks of stroke in the long run. Paced breathing is deep diaphragmatic breathing with typical rates equal to or less than 5-7 breaths per minute compared with the usual rate of 12-14. One plausible mechanism of benefit is that paced breathing stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system which alters neuronal function in specific areas of the brain and reduces stress chemicals. The hypothesis that mindfulness with paced slow breathing reduces BP could be directly tested in randomized trials designed a priori to do so. Subsequently, a finding that mindfulness with paced breathing reduces BP would also lead to direct tests in randomized trials of reductions of carotid atherosclerosis and, if so, a larger scale trial to test whether there is a direct impact of mindfulness with paced breathing on reducing the risks of stroke and MI. If rigorous testing of this medical hypothesis led to positive results this would have large and important clinical and policy implications in the US and worldwide.

Effect of Unilateral Left Nostril Breathing (Chandra Anga Pranayama) on Cognitive Function in Healthy Yoga-Naïve Individuals: A Randomized, Controlled, Pilot Study

INTRODUCTION

Breathing modulates cortical neuronal activity. Various breathing exercises are purported to have specific effects on emotional and cognitive functions.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of unilateral left nostril breathing (ULNB) on nonlateralized, overall cognitive functions using computerized psychometric tests.

METHODS

A randomized, controlled, pilot study was conducted among 20 healthy yoga-naïve medical students. ULNB was performed for 15 min by the test group (n = 10) and breath awareness by the control group (n = 10). Attention and processing speed, memory, and executive function were assessed using the Letter-Digit Substitution Test, Sternberg Memory Task, and Victoria Stroop Test, respectively. Baseline, pre- and postintervention scores were recorded.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference between the groups in baseline scores. In the Sternberg Memory Task, a statistically significant decrease in response time was seen in the test (t(9) = 3.855, p = 0.004) as well as the control group (t(9) = 3.120, p = 0.012); there was no significant difference between the groups. No significant effect of UNLB was seen in the Letter-Digit Substitution Test and Stroop Test.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed no difference in the effects of 15-min practice of ULNB and breath awareness on cognitive functions; both improved memory but not attention or executive function.

Separating the "Limbs" of Yoga: Limited Effects on Stress and Mood

Though millions of people practice yoga to reduce stress and improve their mood, it is unclear which aspect of yoga is responsible for these effects. To investigate relevant aspects, or "limbs" of yoga, participants who were novices in the practice of yoga engaged in a single yoga manipulation (i.e., poses, breath work, meditation, or listening to a lecture about yoga) for 20 min before experiencing a mild stressor. Participants' heart rate, blood pressure, mood, and anxiety level were assessed, both immediately after the yoga manipulation and after the mild stressor. The 20-min yoga manipulation did not differentially affect any of the measures, including participants' stress response after the mild stressor. Results are discussed regarding the individual components of a yoga practice.

Hypothesis: Pulmonary Afferent Activity Patterns During Slow, Deep Breathing Contribute to the Neural Induction of Physiological Relaxation

Control of respiration provides a powerful voluntary portal to entrain and modulate central autonomic networks. Slowing and deepening breathing as a relaxation technique has shown promise in a variety of cardiorespiratory and stress-related disorders, but few studies have investigated the physiological mechanisms conferring its benefits. Recent evidence suggests that breathing at a frequency near 0.1 Hz (6 breaths per minute) promotes behavioral relaxation and baroreflex resonance effects that maximize heart rate variability. Breathing around this frequency appears to elicit resonant and coherent features in neuro-mechanical interactions that optimize physiological function. Here we explore the neurophysiology of slow, deep breathing and propose that coincident features of respiratory and baroreceptor afferent activity cycling at 0.1 Hz entrain central autonomic networks. An important role is assigned to the preferential recruitment of slowly-adapting pulmonary afferents (SARs) during prolonged inhalations. These afferents project to discrete areas in the brainstem within the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and initiate inhibitory actions on downstream targets. Conversely, deep exhalations terminate SAR activity and activate arterial baroreceptors via increases in blood pressure to stimulate, through NTS projections, parasympathetic outflow to the heart. Reciprocal SAR and baroreceptor afferent-evoked actions combine to enhance sympathetic activity during inhalation and parasympathetic activity during exhalation, respectively. This leads to pronounced heart rate variability in phase with the respiratory cycle (respiratory sinus arrhythmia) and improved ventilation-perfusion matching. NTS relay neurons project extensively to areas of the central autonomic network to encode important features of the breathing pattern that may modulate anxiety, arousal, and attention. In our model, pronounced respiratory rhythms during slow, deep breathing also support expression of slow cortical rhythms to induce a functional state of alert relaxation, and, via nasal respiration-based actions on olfactory signaling, recruit hippocampal pathways to boost memory consolidation. Collectively, we assert that the neurophysiological processes recruited during slow, deep breathing enhance the cognitive and behavioral therapeutic outcomes obtained through various mind-body practices. Future studies are required to better understand the physio-behavioral processes involved, including in animal models that control for confounding factors such as expectancy biases.

Role of Yoga in the Management of Premature Ejaculation

Premature ejaculation (PE) is a common male sexual problem. Various non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment options are available currently. The importance of yoga in the management of various sexual dysfunctions is increasingly recognized. In this review, we are analyzing the role of yoga in the management of PE. This paper explores the mechanism of yoga practices in the management of PE and the recommended yoga practice for PE. It also discusses the scientific evidence of yoga practices, such as yoga postures (yogasana), breathing practices (pranayama), lock (bandha), gestures (mudra), relaxation, Aum chanting, yoga nidra and meditation with particular reference the management of PE.

Spontaneous and Stimulus-Evoked Respiratory Rate Elevation Corresponds to Development of Allodynia in Spinal Cord-Injured Rats

Respiratory complications frequently accompany spinal cord injury (SCI) and slowed breathing has been shown to mitigate pain sensitivity. It is possible that elevated respiratory rates (RRs) signal the emergence of chronic pain after SCI. We previously validated the use of remote electric field sensors to noninvasively track breathing in freely behaving rodents. Here, we examined spontaneous (resting) and stimulus-evoked RRs as potential indices of mechanical hypersensitivity following SCI. Adult male Long-Evans rats received a lower thoracic hemisection or contusion SCI, or sham surgery, and underwent weekly assessments of mechanical and thermal sensitivity using the von Frey and Hargreaves tests, respectively. Resting RRs were recorded with remote sensors prior to nociception assays as well as 1 day post-surgery. Evoked RRs were quantified weekly in response to at-level mechanical stimulation provided by a small brush at various stimulation speeds, including those corresponding to the distinct tuning properties of a sub-population of cutaneous afferents known as C-low threshold mechanoreceptors. SCI rats developed mechanical hypersensitivity, which peaked 2-3 weeks after SCI. Compared with at baseline, hemisection SCI rats showed significantly heightened resting RRs at 1 day and 7 days post-injury, and the latter predicted development of pain hypersensitivity. In contusion SCI rats, resting RR increases were less substantial but occurred at all weekly time-points. Increases in brush-evoked RR coincided with full expression of hypersensitivity at 14 (hemisection) or 21 (contusion) days after SCI, and these effects were restricted to the lowest brush speeds. Our results support the possibility that early changes in RR may convey pain information in rats.

Vagal Mediation of Low-Frequency Heart Rate Variability During Slow Yogic Breathing

OBJECTIVE

Changes in heart rate variability (HRV) associated with breathing (respiratory sinus arrhythmia) are known to be parasympathetically (vagally) mediated when the breathing rate is within the typical frequency range (9-24 breaths per minute [bpm]; high-frequency HRV). Slow yogic breathing occurs at rates below this range and increases low-frequency HRV power, which may additionally reflect a significant sympathetic component. Yogic breathing techniques are hypothesized to confer health benefits by increasing cardiac vagal control, but increases in low-frequency HRV power cannot unambiguously distinguish sympathetic from parasympathetic contributions. The aim of this study was to investigate the autonomic origins of changes in low-frequency HRV power due to slow-paced breathing.

METHODS

Six healthy young adults completed slow-paced breathing with a cadence derived from yogic breathing patterns. The paced breathing took place under conditions of sympathetic blockade, parasympathetic (vagal) blockade, and placebo. HRV spectral power was compared under 11 breathing rates during each session, in counterbalanced order with frequencies spanning the low-frequency range (4-9 bpm).

RESULTS

HRV power across the low-frequency range (4-9 bpm) was nearly eliminated (p = .016) by parasympathetic blockade (mean (SD) spectral power at breathing frequency = 4.1 (2.1)) compared with placebo (69.5 (8.1)). In contrast, spectral power during sympathetic blockade 70.2 (9.1) and placebo (69.5 (8.1)) was statistically indistinguishable (p = .671).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings clarify the interpretation of changes in HRV that occur during slow-paced breathing by showing that changes in low-frequency power under these conditions are almost entirely vagally mediated. Slow-paced breathing is an effective tool for cardiac vagal activation.

Voluntary upregulation of heart rate variability through biofeedback is improved by mental contemplative training

Regulation of the parasympathetic nervous system, indexed through high frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV), is indicative of physical and psychological health. However, little is known about the trainability of this capacity. We investigated the effects of a 9-month mental training program (the ReSource Project; n = 298) on voluntary HF-HRV upregulation, assessed with a novel biofeedback procedure. The program consisted of attentional, interoceptive, socio-affective and socio-cognitive training elements, all of which potentially influence parasympathetic regulation. Based on known links between oxytocin and parasympathetic activity, we also explored the relationship of HF-HRV upregulation to the oxytocin receptor system. We found that HF-HRV during the biofeedback session increased after 3 months of training, concomitant with prolonged respiration cycles. Breathing-controlled changes in HF-HRV upregulation, indicative of improved parasympathetic control, were significantly increased after 6 months of training. Homozygous risk allele carriers (AA) of the oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism rs53576 showed initially lower parasympathetic control, but fully compensated for their initial deficits through the training. No changes were found for HF-HRV at rest. Our data demonstrate that a mental training intervention extending over several months can increase the capacity for voluntary regulation of HF-HRV, with important implications for improving individual and societal health.

Changes in Lung Function Measures Following Bhastrika Pranayama (Bellows Breath) and Running in Healthy Individuals

Background:

The purpose of this study was to observe the effect of bhastrika pranayama (bellows breath) and exercise on lung function of healthy individuals.

Materials and Methods:

A total of thirty male participants were recruited and randomly divided into two groups, i.e., yoga breathing group (YBG, n = 15) and physical exercise group (PEG, n = 15), and the participants’ ages ranged between 18 and 30 years (group age mean ± standard deviation, 22.5 ± 1.9 years). YBG practiced bhastrika pranayama for 15 min, whereas PEG practiced running for 15 min, 6 days in a week, over a period of 1 month. The participants were assessed for (i) forced vital capacity (FVC), (ii) forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), (iii) peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), and (iv) maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) functions of lungs.

Results:

Repeated-measures analyses of variance with Bonferroni adjustment post hoc analyses of multiple comparisons showed that there was a significant increase in YBG for all variables, i.e., FVC, FEV1, PEFR, and MVV (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, P < 0.01, and P < 0.001, respectively), whereas there was a significant increase in PEFR and MVV (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01, respectively) only, among PEG. However, the change in PEG was less of magnitude as compared to YBG.

Conclusions:

These findings demonstrate that incorporating pranayama in sports can enhance the efficiency of healthy individuals and athletes by enhancing the ventilatory functions of lungs, especially for those who partake in aerobic-based sports and require efficient lungs to deliver sufficient oxygen uptake.

Immediate effect of mind sound resonance technique (MSRT - a yoga-based relaxation technique) on blood pressure, heart rate, and state anxiety in individuals with hypertension: a pilot study

Background Mind sound resonance technique (MSRT) is a yoga-based relaxation technique. Previous studies on MSRT demonstrated its potential health-benefiting effects in both clinical and nonclinical population. Present study intended to assess the acute effect of MSRT intervention on blood pressure, heart rate (HR), and state anxiety in patients with essential hypertension (HTN). Methods Thirty participants (13 females) with HTN, within the age range 30-60 years (with mean±SD: 57.23±11.3 years), who visited SVYASA University campus to attend 1-week residential yoga program for HTN treatment, were considered for this study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. All participants received a 4-day MSRT orientation sessions prior to the study. Each participant underwent 30-min session of both MSRT and supine rest (SR) on 2 successive days. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures, pulse rate, and state anxiety were measured before and immediately after both MSRT and SR sessions. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 16. Repeated-measure analysis of variance was applied to assess within-subjects changes. Results After MSRT session, significant decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), HR, and state anxiety was observed compared to baseline. Similarly, after SR session, significant changes were found in HR and state anxiety. No significant change was seen in SBP and DBP following SR compared to SR session; MSRT session showed significantly better improvement in SBP, DBP, HR, and state anxiety. Conclusion Present study demonstrated the usefulness of single session of MSRT in reducing blood pressure, HR, and state anxiety among individuals with HTN as compared to SR. These findings encourage the further studies with larger sample size and long-term intervention with a robust research design.

Breath of Life: The Respiratory Vagal Stimulation Model of Contemplative Activity

Contemplative practices, such as meditation and yoga, are increasingly popular among the general public and as topics of research. Beneficial effects associated with these practices have been found on physical health, mental health and cognitive performance. However, studies and theories that clarify the underlying mechanisms are lacking or scarce. This theoretical review aims to address and compensate this scarcity. We will show that various contemplative activities have in common that breathing is regulated or attentively guided. This respiratory discipline in turn could parsimoniously explain the physical and mental benefits of contemplative activities through changes in autonomic balance. We propose a neurophysiological model that explains how these specific respiration styles could operate, by phasically and tonically stimulating the vagal nerve: respiratory vagal nerve stimulation (rVNS). The vagal nerve, as a proponent of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), is the prime candidate in explaining the effects of contemplative practices on health, mental health and cognition. We will discuss implications and limitations of our model.

Effects of yogic breath regulation: A narrative review of scientific evidence

Pranayama or breath regulation is considered as an essential component of Yoga, which is said to influence the physiological systems. We present a comprehensive overview of scientific literature in the field of yogic breathing. We searched PubMed, PubMed Central and IndMed for citations for keywords “Pranayama” and “Yogic Breathing”. The search yielded a total of 1400 references. Experimental papers, case studies and case series in English, revealing the effects of yogic breathing were included in the review. The preponderance of literature points to beneficial effects of yogic breathing techniques in both physiological and clinical setups. Advantageous effects of yogic breathing on the neurocognitive, psychophysiological, respiratory, biochemical and metabolic functions in healthy individuals were elicited. They were also found useful in management of various clinical conditions. Overall, yogic breathing could be considered safe, when practiced under guidance of a trained teacher. Considering the positive effects of yogic breathing, further large scale studies with rigorous designs to understand the mechanisms involved with yogic breathing are warranted.

Influence of Yoga on the Autonomic Nervous System

Increased interest in exploring the physiological benefits of yoga in last few decades resulted in plethora of scientific studies involving different physiological measures in healthy volunteers and patients with various disorders. Of these measures, autonomic functions assessment remained prime role because of wider regulation of autonomic nervous system functions over all visceral systems of the body. Through its two limbs (sympathetic and parasympathetic) autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary visceral organs and systems of the body, which is critical in maintaining the homeostasis of all the physiological functions. This homeostasis is altered in various disease conditions most of which resulted because of the increased stress, a product of modern day lifestyle. Yoga is perfect antidote for the stress, effectively tackling the dreaded effects of stress on physiological systems mainly acting through modulating sympathovagal balance to maintain the homeostasis and restoring the health. We will discuss how yoga achieves this balance in various disorders by reviewing the autonomic system, its functions, laboratory assessments and plenty of scientific studies conducted over last few decades in various disorders involving yoga and autonomic functions. Although we have general idea as to how yoga modulates the sympathovagal balance improving clinical condition, we need to have more long-term, in-depth, well-controlled studies not only to understand these complex interactions of yoga and autonomic functions but also to provide scientific credibility to yoga research in world's scientific community. These steps would hopefully enable mankind to lead the disease-free healthy life style effectively to achieve meaningfully the purpose of one's life.

Effect of Yogic Breathing on Accommodate Braille Version of Six-letter Cancellation Test in Students with Visual Impairment

Context:

Attentional processes tend to be less well developed in the visually impaired, who require special training to develop them fully. Yogic breathing which alters the patterns of respiration has been shown to enhance attention skills. Letter cancellation tests are well-established tools to measure attention and attention span. Here, a modified Braille version of the six-letter cancellation test (SLCT) was used for students with visual impairment (VI).

Aim:

This study aimed to assess the immediate effects of Bhramari Pranayama (BhPr) and breath awareness (BA) on students with VI.

Methods:

This study was a self-as-control study held on 2 consecutive days, on 19 participants (8 males, 11 females), with a mean age of 15.89 ± 1.59 years, randomized into two groups. On the 1^st day, Group 1 performed 10 min breath awareness and Group 2 performed Bhramari; on the 2^nd day, practices were reversed. Assessments used a SLCT specially adapted for the visually impaired before and after each session.

Results:

The Braille letter cancellation test was successfully taken by 19 students. Scores significantly improved after both techniques for each student following practices on both days (P < 0.001). BhPr may have more effect on attention performance than BA as wrong scores significantly increased following BA (P < 0.05), but the increase in the score after Bhramari was not significant.

Conclusions:

Despite the small sample size improvement in attentional processes by both yoga breathing techniques was robust. Attentional skills were definitely enhanced. Long-term practice should be studied.

Different types of bhastrika pranayama: repeated measures trials with different treatments to study the trend of the effects on static balance ability

Purpose. The objective of the study was to find out the trend of the effects of 4 varieties of bhastrika pranayama on static balance ability. Methods. The total of 75 male students were selected as subjects. The age of the subjects ranged 17-25 years. The participants were divided randomly into 5 groups, 15 students each. They practiced 4 varieties of bhastrika pranayama. Results. Quadratic components for overall trends were found significant in static balance ability. A significant difference was observed between linear components of the trends for the treatment groups and the control group in static balance ability. Also, a significant difference was noted between quadratic components of the trends for the treatment groups and the control group as for static balance ability. Conclusions. There was a significant difference among the adjusted post-test means of 4 experimental groups and the control group in static balance ability.

The effect of pleasant olfactory mental imagery on the incidence and extent of atelectasis in patients after open heart surgery

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Atelectasis is the most common pulmonary complication after open heart surgery. This study was intended to examine the effects of pleasant olfactory mental imagery on postoperative atelectasis in patients undergoing open heart surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a randomized controlled clinical trial. The sample consisted of 80 patients who were randomly assigned to either practice olfactory mental imagery (test group) or receive routine care (control group). A card with the image of roses was given to patients and they were asked to look at the image, visualize the scent of roses in the mind, and then sniff as much as possible, hold their breath for 2s and eventually exhale slowly through the nose. This procedure was consecutively repeated five times. After a fifteen-minute break, patients proceeded to practice olfactory mental imagery with other fruit images (banana, apple, and lemon). The test group executed the olfactory mental imagery for two hours in the morning and two hours in the afternoon on postoperative days 1 and 2. The control group received the routine ICU care. A questionnaire collected information on sociodemographic characteristics and clinical parameters. Chest radiographs were used to diagnose atelectasis, which were evaluated by the hospital radiologist.

RESULTS

No statistically significant differences were observed between the two groups regarding sociodemographic, medical and surgical information. The incidence of atelectasis in the test group (40%, n=16) was significantly lower than in the control group (67.5%, n=27) on postoperative day 2 (p=0.02).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that olfactory mental imagery can improve respiratory function and reduce the risk of atelectasis in patients with cardiac surgery.

Slow Breathing Can Be Operantly Conditioned in the Rat and May Reduce Sensitivity to Experimental Stressors

In humans, exercises involving slowed respiratory rate (SRR) counter autonomic sympathetic bias and reduce responses to stressors, including in individuals with various degrees of autonomic dysfunction. In the rat, we examined whether operant conditioning could lead to reductions in respiratory rate (RR) and performed preliminary studies to assess whether conditioned SRR was sufficient to decrease physiological and behavioral responsiveness to stressors. RR was continuously monitored during 20 2-h sessions using whole body plethysmography. SRR conditioned, but not yoked control rats, were able to turn off aversive visual stimulation (intermittent bright light) by slowing their breathing below a preset target of 80 breaths/min. SRR conditioned rats greatly increased the incidence of breaths below the target RR over training, with average resting RR decreasing from 92 to 81 breaths/min. These effects were significant as a group and vs. yoked controls. Preliminary studies in a subset of conditioned rats revealed behavioral changes suggestive of reduced reactivity to stressful and nociceptive stimuli. In these same rats, intermittent sessions without visual reinforcement and a post-training priming stressor (acute restraint) demonstrated that conditioned rats retained reduced RR vs. controls in the absence of conditioning. In conclusion, we present the first successful attempt to operantly condition reduced RR in an animal model. Although further studies are needed to clarify the physio-behavioral concomitants of slowed breathing, the developed model may aid subsequent neurophysiological inquiries on the role of slow breathing in stress reduction.

Effects of pleasant olfactory mental imagery on the arterial oxygenation in patients with open heart surgery: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Arterial hypoxemia is one of the most common respiratory complications following cardiac surgery. This study was intended to examine the effects of pleasant olfactory mental imagery on postoperative hypoxemia in patients undergoing open heart surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a randomized controlled clinical trial. The sample consisted of 80 patients who were randomly assigned to either practice olfactory mental imagery (experimental group) or receive routine care (control group). A card with the image of roses was given to patients and they were asked to look at the image, visualize the scent of roses in the mind, and then sniff as much as possible, hold their breath for 2 s and eventually exhale slowly through the nose. This procedure was consecutively repeated five times. After a fifteen-minute break, patients proceeded to practice olfactory mental imagery with other fruit images. The experimental group executed the olfactory mental imagery for two hours in the morning and two hours in the afternoon on postoperative days 1 and 2.

RESULTS

No statistically significant differences were observed between the experimental and control groups regarding sociodemographic characteristics, medical and surgical information. This study also demonstrated that the mean Spao2 was significantly higher in the experimental group (97.400 ± 1.70) than the control group (96.465 ± 1.70) (p = 0.015).

CONCLUSION

The results of this study suggest that olfactory mental imagery can improve arterial oxygenation in patients with cardiac surgery.

Stress management through regulation of blood pressure among college students

BACKGROUND

This paper introduces the concept of Deep Breathing and its applications as one of the means towards stress management through regulation of blood pressure among Indian College Engineering students. The underlying concept of deep breathing is that the relation between emotions and breathing is two way, i.e. not only do emotions affect the breathing, but controlled deep breathing also has an effect on emotions.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the paper is to find out whether deep breathing technique is able to control blood pressure, and in turn, the level of stress.

METHODS

Sample students had a selection through initial screening and the students who reported high mental stress during interview were selected for the main drills. All the readings are taken using a sphygmomanometer (digital blood pressure meter). Students' t test are used for the purpose of hypothesis testing.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the deep breathing technique provided significant results.

CONCLUSION

It is recommended that this amazingly simple and yet highly effective ancient technique of deep breathing become part of students' routine curriculum. The paper aims at spreading the awareness of this yogic technique as one of the modes of Stress Management amongst Indian college students.