The Basal Ganglia Striosomes Affect the Modulation of Conflicts by Subliminal Information-Evidence from X-Linked Dystonia Parkinsonism

Interactions of catecholamines and GABA+ in cognitive control: Insights from EEG and 1H-MRS

Catecholamines and amino acid transmitter systems are known to interact, the exact links and their impact on cognitive control functions have however remained unclear. Using a multi-modal imaging approach combining EEG and proton-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS), we investigated the effect of different degrees of pharmacological catecholaminergic enhancement onto theta band activity (TBA) as a measure of interference control during response inhibition and execution. It was central to our study to evaluate the predictive impact of in-vivo baseline GABA+ concentrations in the striatum, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the supplemental motor area (SMA) of healthy adults under varying degrees of methylphenidate (MPH) stimulation. We provide evidence for a predictive interrelation of baseline GABA+ concentrations in cognitive control relevant brain areas onto task-induced TBA during response control stimulated with MPH. Baseline GABA+ concentrations in the ACC, the striatum, and the SMA had a differential impact on predicting interference control-related TBA in response execution trials. GABA+ concentrations in the ACC appeared to be specifically important for TBA modulations when the cognitive effort needed for interference control was high - that is when no prior task experience exists, or in the absence of catecholaminergic enhancement with MPH. The study highlights the predictive role of baseline GABA+ concentrations in key brain areas influencing cognitive control and responsiveness to catecholaminergic enhancement, particularly in high-effort scenarios.

Physiological Recordings of the Cerebellum in Movement Disorders

The cerebellum plays an important role in movement disorders, specifically in symptoms of ataxia, tremor, and dystonia. Understanding the physiological signals of the cerebellum contributes to insights into the pathophysiology of these movement disorders and holds promise in advancing therapeutic development. Non-invasive techniques such as electroencephalogram and magnetoencephalogram can record neural signals with high temporal resolution at the millisecond level, which is uniquely suitable to interrogate cerebellar physiology. These techniques have recently been implemented to study cerebellar physiology in healthy subjects as well as individuals with movement disorders. In the present review, we focus on the current understanding of cerebellar physiology using these techniques to study movement disorders.

The metacontrol hypothesis as diagnostic framework of OCD and ADHD: A dimensional approach based on shared neurobiological vulnerability

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are multi-faceted neuropsychiatric conditions that in many aspects appear to be each other's antipodes. We suggest a dimensional approach, according to which these partially opposing disorders fall onto a continuum that reflects variability regarding alterations of cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits and of the processing of neural noise during cognition. By using theoretical accounts of human cognitive metacontrol, we develop a framework according to which OCD can be characterized by a chronic bias towards exaggerated cognitive persistence, equivalent to a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)-which facilitates perseverative behaviour but impairs mental flexibility. In contrast, ADHD is characterized by a chronic bias towards inflated cognitive flexibility, equivalent to a low SNR-which increases behavioural variability but impairs the focusing on one goal and on relevant information. We argue that, when pharmacology is not feasible, novel treatments of these disorders may involve methods to manipulate the signal-to-noise ratio via non-invasive brain stimulation techniques, in order to normalize the situational imbalance between cognitive persistence and cognitive flexibility.

Unbiased identification of novel transcription factors in striatal compartmentation and striosome maturation

Many diseases are linked to dysregulation of the striatum. Striatal function depends on neuronal compartmentation into striosomes and matrix. Striatal projection neurons are GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs), subtyped by selective expression of receptors, neuropeptides, and other gene families. Neurogenesis of the striosome and matrix occurs in separate waves, but the factors regulating compartmentation and neuronal differentiation are largely unidentified. We performed RNA- and ATAC-seq on sorted striosome and matrix cells at postnatal day 3, using the Nr4a1-EGFP striosome reporter mouse. Focusing on the striosome, we validated the localization and/or role of Irx1, Foxf2, Olig2, and Stat1/2 in the developing striosome and the in vivo enhancer function of a striosome-specific open chromatin region 4.4 Kb downstream of Olig2. These data provide novel tools to dissect and manipulate the networks regulating MSN compartmentation and differentiation, including in human iPSC-derived striatal neurons for disease modeling and drug discovery.

Anodal tDCS modulates specific processing codes during conflict monitoring associated with superior and middle frontal cortices

Conflict monitoring processes are central for cognitive control. Neurophysiological correlates of conflict monitoring (i.e. the N2 ERP) likely represent a mixture of different cognitive processes. Based on theoretical considerations, we hypothesized that effects of anodal tDCS (atDCS) in superior frontal areas affect specific subprocesses in neurophysiological activity during conflict monitoring. To investigate this, young healthy adults performed a Simon task while EEG was recorded. atDCS and sham tDCS were applied in a single-blind, cross-over study design. Using temporal signal decomposition in combination with source localization analyses, we demonstrated that atDCS effects on cognitive control are very specific: the detrimental effect of atDCS on response speed was largest in case of response conflicts. This however only showed in aspects of the decomposed N2 component, reflecting stimulus-response translation processes. In contrast to this, stimulus-related aspects of the N2 as well as purely response-related processes were not modulated by atDCS. EEG source localization analyses revealed that the effect was likely driven by activity modulations in the superior frontal areas, including the supplementary motor cortex (BA6), as well as middle frontal (BA9) and medial frontal areas (BA32). atDCS did not modulate effects of proprioceptive information on hand position, even though this aspect is known to be processed within the same brain areas. Physiological effects of atDCS likely modulate specific aspects of information processing during cognitive control.

X-linked dystonia Parkinsonism: crossing a new threshold

X-linked dystonia parkinsonism (XDP) is a neurodegenerative disorder that has received significant interest on several fronts. Although much still remains to be elucidated regarding the disease cause, a robust amount of data has been produced in recent years compared to when it was first described in 1976. The debilitating nature of the overlapping dystonia and parkinsonism that characterizes this disorder has fueled much of the interest in unraveling its cause, clinical presentation, symptom progression, treatment and impact on the afflicted patients as well as their caregivers. Having made several significant advances in genetic studies, neuropathology, neurophysiology and clinical characterization, we are entering a new threshold in the study of this disorder, hopefully bringing us closer to potential treatments and possible cures. This review will focus on new information gathered regarding the motor and non-motor features of XDP, deep brain stimulation (DBS) as a potential treatment for XDP and the utility of the recently validated XDP-Movement Disorder Society of the Philippines (MDSP)-rating scale.

Early prediction of putamen imaging features in HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment syndrome

Background

To explore the correlation between the volume of putamen and brain cognitive impairment in patients with HIV and to predict the feasibility of early-stage HIV brain cognitive impairment through radiomics.

Method

Retrospective selection of 90 patients with HIV infection, including 36 asymptomatic neurocognitive impairment (ANI) patients and 54 pre-clinical ANI patients in Beijing YouAn Hospital. All patients received comprehensive neuropsychological assessment and MRI scanning. 3D Slicer software was used to acquire volume of interest (VOI) and radiomics features. Clinical variables and volume of putamen were compared between patients with ANI and pre-clinical ANI. The Kruskal Wallis test was used to analysis multiple comparisons between groups. The relationship between cognitive scores and VOI was compared using linear regression. For radiomics, principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce model overfitting and calculations and then a support vector machine (SVM) was used to build a binary classification model. For model performance evaluation, we used an accuracy, sensitivity, specificity and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC).

Result

There were no significant differences in clinical variables between ANI group and pre-clinical-ANI group (P>0.05). The volume of bilateral putamen was significantly different between AHI group and pre-clinical group (P<0.05), but there was only a trend in the left putamen between ANI-treatment group and pre-clinical treatment group(P = 0.063). Reduced cognitive scores in Verbal Fluency, Attention/Working Memory, Executive Functioning, memory and Speed of Information Processing were negatively correlated with the increased VOI (P<0.05), but the correlation was relatively low. In diagnosing the ANI from pre-clinical ANI, the mean area under the ROC curves (AUC) were 0.85 ± 0.22, the mean sensitivity and specificity were 63.12 ± 5.51 and 94.25% ± 3.08%.

Conclusion

The volumes of putamen in patients with ANI may be larger than patients with pre-clinical ANI, the change of the volume of the putamen may have a certain process; there is a relationship between putamen and cognitive impairment, but the exact mechanism is unclear. Radiomics may be a useful tool for predicting early stage HAND in patients with HIV.

Neurocognitive profile of patients with X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism

X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP) is a debilitating movement disorder endemic to the Panay Island, Philippines. Most studies focus on motor symptoms, hence we reviewed the neurocognitive profile of XDP patients. Neurocognitive testing of XDP patients focused on five domains: general intellectual functioning, episodic memory, language, attention and executive function, and affect. Twenty-nine genetically confirmed patients were included. Twenty-six (89.6%) had impairments in one or more domains, while only three had no impairment in any domain. Attention and executive function was the most commonly affected domain (n = 23, 79.3%). Deficits in general intellect, episodic memory, attention and executive function and affect were seen in our subset of XDP patients. The striatal pathology affecting the frontostriatal circuitry mandating these cognitive processes is mainly implicated in these impairments. The results of our study provided further evidence on the extent of cognitive impairment in XDP using a select battery of neurocognitive tests.

Combined dystonias: clinical and genetic updates

The genetic combined dystonias are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of neurologic disorders defined by the overlap of dystonia and other movement disorders such as parkinsonism or myoclonus. The number of genes associated with combined dystonia syndromes has been increasing due to the wider recognition of clinical features and broader use of genetic testing. Nevertheless, these diseases are still rare and represent only a small subgroup among all dystonias. Dopa-responsive dystonia (DYT/PARK-GCH1), rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism (DYT/PARK-ATP1A3), X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP, DYT/PARK-TAF1), and young-onset dystonia-parkinsonism (DYT/PARK-PRKRA) are monogenic combined dystonias accompanied by parkinsonian features. Meanwhile, MYC/DYT-SGCE and MYC/DYT-KCTD17 are characterized by dystonia in combination with myoclonus. In the past, common molecular pathways between these syndromes were the center of interest. Although the encoded proteins rather affect diverse cellular functions, recent neurophysiological evidence suggests similarities in the underlying mechanism in a subset. This review summarizes recent developments in the combined dystonias, focusing on clinico-genetic features and neurophysiologic findings. Disease-modifying therapies remain unavailable to date; an overview of symptomatic therapies for these disorders is also presented.

Applying deep learning to single-trial EEG data provides evidence for complementary theories on action control

Efficient action control is indispensable for goal-directed behaviour. Different theories have stressed the importance of either attention or response selection sub-processes for action control. Yet, it is unclear to what extent these processes can be identified in the dynamics of neurophysiological (EEG) processes at the single-trial level and be used to predict the presence of conflicts in a given moment. Applying deep learning, which was blind to cognitive theory, on single-trial EEG data allowed to predict the presence of conflict in ~95% of subjects ~33% above chance level. Neurophysiological features related to attentional and motor response selection processes in the occipital cortex and the superior frontal gyrus contributed most to prediction accuracy. Importantly, deep learning was able to identify predictive neurophysiological processes in single-trial neural dynamics. Hence, mathematical (artificial intelligence) approaches may be used to foster the validation and development of links between cognitive theory and neurophysiology of human behavior.

Vahid et al. use a deep-learning approach to analyze single-trial EEG data to examine theories on action control. Their approach enables the identification of spatial and temporal neurophysiological features that are predictive of the response control during the Simon task. The results confirm cognitive theory-driven approaches on the relationship between neurophysiology and human behavior.

Low and high stimulation frequencies differentially affect automated response selection in the superior parietal cortex - implications for somatosensory area processes

Response inhibition as a central facet of executive functioning is no homogeneous construct. Interference inhibition constitutes a subcomponent of response inhibition and refers to inhibitory control over responses that are automatically triggered by irrelevant stimulus dimensions as measured by the Simon task. While there is evidence that the area-specific modulation of tactile information affects the act of action withholding, effects in the context of interference inhibition remain elusive. We conducted a tactile version of the Simon task with stimuli designed to be predominantly processed in the primary (40 Hz) or secondary (150 Hz) somatosensory cortex. On the basis of EEG recordings, we performed signal decomposition and source localization. Behavioral results reveal that response execution is more efficient when sensory information is mainly processed via SII, compared to SI sensory areas during non-conflicting trials. When accounting for intermingled coding levels by temporally decomposing EEG data, the results show that experimental variations depending on sensory area-specific processing differences specifically affect motor and not sensory processes. Modulations of motor-related processes are linked to activation differences in the superior parietal cortex (BA7). It is concluded that the SII cortical area supporting cognitive preprocessing of tactile input fosters automatic tactile information processing by facilitating stimulus-response mapping in posterior parietal regions.

Translation, Cultural Adaptation, and Validation of the Hiligaynon Montreal Cognitive Assessment Tool (MoCA-Hil) Among Patients With X-Linked Dystonia Parkinsonism (XDP)

Background: X-linked dystonia parkinsonism (XDP) is a neurodegenerative disease endemic to Filipinos with maternal lineage from Panay Island, Philippines. Patients present with dystonia concurrent with or followed by parkinsonism. Non-motor symptoms also predominate, affecting behavior and cognition. We aimed to translate and do cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Tool (MoCA) into Hiligaynon (MoCA-Hil), the language spoken in Panay Island, to perform baseline cognitive screening of XDP patients.

Methods: Forward translation to Hiligaynon was done by two translators, then back translation of a single version was adapted and approved by a committee. A pilot testing was done yielding the final translated version, which was then tested on 46 XDP patients. The test-retest reliability was measured for 11 patients. The XDP-MDSP (Movement Disorder Society of the Philippines) rating scale was used to assess disease severity.

Results: The MoCA-Hil showed an acceptable test-retest reliability [intraclass correlation (ICC) 0.74] and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha 0.86 at baseline, 0.81 at 12 weeks). The two subscales with low ICC at 0.09 and 0.21 were delayed recall and orientation, respectively.

Conclusion: Translation, cultural adaptation and validation of the MoCA to Hiligaynon was successfully done. This tool may now be used in clinical practice and in research for Hiligaynon-speaking subjects.

Predictive coding and adaptive behavior in patients with genetically determined cerebellar ataxia--A neurophysiology study

Genetically determined cerebellar ataxias (CA) are a heterogeneous group of disorders with progressive decline of cerebellar functions. The cerebellum influences internal forward models that play a role in cognitive control, but whether these processes are dysfunctional in CA is unclear. Here, we examined sensory predictive coding processes and response adaptation in CA and healthy controls (HC) using behavioral tests with concomitant EEG recordings. N = 23 patients and N = 29 age- and sex-matched HC were studied. Sensory prediction coding was tested with an auditory distraction paradigm and error-related behavioral adaptation with a visual flanker task. As neurophysiological markers we studied different event-related potentials: the P3a for orientation of attention; the N2 and the error-related negativity (ERN) for cognitive adaptation processes/consequences of response errors; error-related positivity (Pe) for error-awareness; the mismatch negativity (MMN) for sensory predictive coding; and reorientation negativity (RON) for reorientation after unexpected events. Overall reaction times were slower in patients compared to HC, but error rates did not differ. Both in patients and HC, P3a amplitudes were larger in distraction trials, but the P3a amplitude was smaller in patients compared to HC. The MMN as well as behavioral and EEG-correlates of response adaptation (ERN/N2) did not differ between groups, while the Pe was attenuated in patients. During sensory predictive coding, RON amplitudes were significantly larger in HC compared to patients. In HC, but not in patients, RON amplitudes were also larger in deviant compared to frequent trials. Processes generating internal forward models are largely intact in genetically determined CA, whereas updating of mental models and error awareness are disturbed in these patients.

X-Linked Dystonia-Parkinsonism: recent advances

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Our understanding of X-Linked Dystonia-Parkinsonism (XDP) has advanced considerably in recent years because of a wealth of new data describing its genetic basis, cellular phenotypes, neuroimaging features, and response to deep brain stimulation (DBS). This review provides a concise summary of these studies.

RECENT FINDINGS

XDP is associated with a SINE-VNTR-Alu (SVA)-type retrotransposon insertion within the TAF1 gene. This element includes a hexameric DNA repeat expansion, (CCCTCT)n, the length of which varies among patients and is inversely correlated to age of disease onset. In cell models, the SVA alters TAF1 splicing and reduces levels of full-length transcript. Neuroimaging data have confirmed previous neuropathology studies that XDP involves a progressive striatal atrophy, while further detecting functional alterations in additional brain regions. In patients exhibiting features of both dystonia and parkinsonism, pallidal DBS has resulted in rapid improvement of hyperkinetic movements, but effects on hypokinetic features have been inconsistent.

SUMMARY

The discovery that XDP is linked to a polymorphic hexameric sequence suggests that it could share mechanisms with other DNA repeat disorders, whereas the transcriptional defect in cell models raises the possibility that strategies to correct TAF1 splicing could provide therapeutic benefit.

The Presynaptic Regulation of Dopamine and Norepinephrine Synthesis Has Dissociable Effects on Different Kinds of Cognitive Conflicts

Goal-directed behavior requires the ability to resolve subliminally or consciously induced response conflicts, both of which may benefit from catecholamine-induced increases in gain control. We investigated the effects of presynaptic differences in dopamine and norepinephrine synthesis with the help of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) rs10770141 and the dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH) rs1611115, rs6271, and rs1611122 polymorphisms. Conscious and subliminal response conflicts were induced with flanker and prime distractors in (n = 207) healthy young participants while neurophysiological data (EEG) was recorded. The results demonstrated that the increased presynaptic catecholamine synthesis associated with the TH rs10770141 TT genotype improves cognitive control in case of consciously perceived (flanker) conflicts, but not in case of subliminally processed (prime) conflicts. Only norepinephrine seemed to also modulate subliminal conflict processing, as evidenced by better performance of the DBH rs1611122 CC genotype in case of high subliminal conflict load. Better performance was linked to larger conflict-induced modulations in post-response alpha band power arising from parietal and inferior frontal regions, which likely helps to suppress the processing of distracting information. In summary, presynaptic catecholamine synthesis benefits consciously perceived conflicts by improving the suppression of distracting information following a conflict. Subliminal conflicts were modulated via the same mechanism, but only by norepinephrine.

RETRACTED: Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the modulation of cognitive control by simultaneous conflicts

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal) This article has been retracted at the request of the Editor-in-Chief with the agreement of the authors. In a previous version of the paper reviewed in another journal, the reviewer suggested changing the filter settings because the setting used (reported hp 0.5) can produce serious artifactual effects on the ERP components (N200, N400 and P300) that the authors were interested in. In this published version of the article a different filter (0.2Hz HP) setting is reported in the methods. However, the results sections are identical. A change in filter setting should have led to different results. There is reasonable doubt that the reported filter settings were indeed applied on the reported data. However, there is consensus that this was due to an error, acknowledged by the authors who fully co-operated with the investigation and agreed with the decision. There is no indication of any fraudulent motivation.

Neuronal networks underlying the conjoint modulation of response selection by subliminal and consciously induced cognitive conflicts

Goal-directed behavior has been shown to be affected by consciously and subliminally induced conflicts. Both types of conflict conjointly modulate behavioral performance, but the underlying neuronal mechanisms have remained unclear. While cognitive control is linked to oscillations in the theta frequency band, there are several mechanisms via which theta oscillations may enable cognitive control: via the coordination and synchronization of a large and complex neuronal network and/or via local processes within the medial frontal cortex. We, therefore, investigated this issue with a focus on theta oscillations and the underlying neuronal networks. For this purpose, n = 40 healthy young participants performed a conflict paradigm that combines conscious and subliminal distractors while an EEG was recorded. The data show that separate processes modulate the theta-based activation and organization of cognitive control networks: EEG beamforming analyses showed that variations in theta band power generated in the supplementary motor area reflected the need for control and task-relevant goal shielding, as both conflicts as well as their conjoint effect on behavior increased theta power. Yet, large networks were not modulated by this and graph theoretical analyses of the efficiency (i.e. small worldness) of theta-driven networks did not reflect the need for control. Instead, theta network efficiency was decreased by subliminal conflicts only. This dissociation suggests that while both kinds of conflict require control and goal shielding, which are induced by an increase in theta band power and modulate processes in the medial frontal cortex, only non-conscious conflicts diminish the efficiency of theta-driven large-scale networks.

The Intensity of Early Attentional Processing, but Not Conflict Monitoring, Determines the Size of Subliminal Response Conflicts

Response conflicts hamper goal-directed behavior and may be evoked by both consciously and subliminally (unconsciously) processed information. Yet, not much is known about the mechanisms and brain regions driving the size of subliminally induced conflicts. We hence combined a response conflict paradigm featuring subliminal primes and conscious flankers with in-depth neurophysiological (EEG) analyses, including source localization in a sample of N = 243 healthy subjects. Intra-individual differences in the size of subliminal conflicts were reflected both during early attentional stimulus processing (prime-associated N1 and target-associated P1 and N1 amplitudes) and conflict monitoring (N2 amplitudes). On the neuroanatomical level, this was reflected by activity modulations in the TPJ (BA39, BA40) and V2 (BA18), which are known to be involved in attentional stimulus processing and task set maintenance. In addition to a "standard" analysis of event-related potentials, we also conducted a purely data-driven machine learning approach using support vector machines (SVM) in order to identify neurophysiological features which do not only reflect the size of subliminal conflict, but actually allow to classify/predict it. This showed that only extremely early information processing (about 65 ms after the onset of the prime) was predictive of subliminal conflict size. Importantly, this predictive feature occurred before target information could even be processed and was reflected by activity in the left middle frontal gyrus (BA6) and insula (BA13). We conclude that differences in task set maintenance and potentially also in subliminal attentional processing of task-relevant features, but not conflict monitoring, determine the size of subliminally induced response conflicts.

Catecholaminergic Modulation of Conflict Control Depends on the Source of Conflicts

Background

To display goal-directed behavior, we must be able to resolve response conflicts that arise from processing various distractors. Such conflicts may be triggered by different kinds of distractor stimuli (e.g., priming and flanker stimuli), but it has remained largely unclear whether the functional and neurobiological underpinnings of both conflict types differ. We therefore investigated the functional relevance of the catecholamines dopamine and norepinephrine, which have been shown to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in neuronal processing and should therefore modulate response conflicts.

Methods

In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study design, we examined the effect of methylphenidate (0.5 mg/kg) on both flanker-induced and priming-induced response conflicts in a group of n=25 healthy young adults. We used EEG recordings to examine event-related potentials in combination with source localization analyses to identify the cognitive-neurophysiological subprocesses and functional neuroanatomical structures modulated by methylphenidate.

Results

Compared with placebo, methylphenidate decreased flanker conflicts. This was matched by increased congruency effects in the fronto-central N2/P3 event-related potential complex and associated with modulations in the right inferior frontal gyrus. In contrast to this, methylphenidate did not modulate the size of prime-evoked conflicts.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that catecholamine-driven increases in signal-to-noise ratio and neural gain control do not equally benefit differently evoked conflicts. This supports the hypothesis of an at least partly different neurobiological basis for flanker- and prime-evoked response conflicts. As the right inferior frontal gyrus plays an important role in inhibition, the catecholaminergic system may reduce flanker conflicts by supporting the inhibition of distracting information.

Striatal Microstructure and Its Relevance for Cognitive Control

The relevance of the striatum for cognitive control processes is increasingly appreciated. The striatum is not a homogenous structure but instead is compartmentalized into the 'matrix' and 'striosomes'. Here, we discuss experiments on a model disease of striosomal dysfunction and provide evidence for the importance of the striatal microstructure for cognitive control in humans.

Effects of multisensory stimuli on inhibitory control in adolescent ADHD: It is the content of information that matters

Even though deficits in inhibitory control and conflict monitoring are well-known in ADHD, factors that further modulate these functions remain to be elucidated. One factor that may be of considerable importance is how inhibitory control is modulated by multisensory information processing. We examined the influence of concurrent auditory conflicting or redundant information on visually triggered response inhibition processes in adolescent ADHD patients and healthy controls. We combined high-density event-related potential (ERP) recordings with source localization to delineate the functional neuroanatomical basis of the involved neurophysiological processes. In comparison to controls, response inhibition (RI) processes in ADHD were compromised in conflicting conditions, but showed no differences to controls when redundant or no concurrent auditory information was presented. These effects were reflected by modulations at the response selection stage (P3 ERP) in the medial frontal gyrus (BA32), but not at the attentional selection (P1, N1 ERPs) or resource allocation level (P2 ERP). Conflicting information during RI exerts its influences in adolescent ADHD via response selection mechanisms, but not via attentional selection. It is not the mere presence of concurrent information, but the presence of conflicting information during RI that may destabilize goal shielding processes in medial frontal cortical regions, by means of increasing the automaticity of response tendencies. The occurring RI deficits might relate to the increased impulsivity in adolescent ADHD and a corresponding vulnerability to react to an increased automaticity of pre-potent response tendencies. ADHD patients show a bias to a specific content of information which can modulate inhibitory control.

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Response inhibition (RI) performance in ADHD is modulated by multisensory information.

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Only incongruent/conflicting concurrent information modulates RI performance.

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RI deficits occur if this conflicting information braces the automaticity of response tendencies.

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These deficits relate to a predisposition of ADHD to engage in impulsive behavior.

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This may be due to deficient goal-shielding processes located in the MFG.

Self-Regulatory Capacities Are Depleted in a Domain-Specific Manner

Performing an act of self-regulation such as making decisions has been suggested to deplete a common limited resource, which impairs all subsequent self-regulatory actions (ego depletion theory). It has however remained unclear whether self-referred decisions truly impair behavioral control even in seemingly unrelated cognitive domains, and which neurophysiological mechanisms are affected by these potential depletion effects. In the current study, we therefore used an inter-individual design to compare two kinds of depletion, namely a self-referred choice-based depletion and a categorization-based switching depletion, to a non-depleted control group. We used a backward inhibition (BI) paradigm to assess the effects of depletion on task switching and associated inhibition processes. It was combined with EEG and source localization techniques to assess both behavioral and neurophysiological depletion effects. The results challenge the ego depletion theory in its current form: Opposing the theory’s prediction of a general limited resource, which should have yielded comparable effects in both depletion groups, or maybe even a larger depletion in the self-referred choice group, there were stronger performance impairments following a task domain-specific depletion (i.e., the switching-based depletion) than following a depletion based on self-referred choices. This suggests at least partly separate and independent resources for various cognitive control processes rather than just one joint resource for all self-regulation activities. The implications are crucial to consider for people making frequent far-reaching decisions e.g., in law or economy.