Diagnosis and Management of Bacterial Vaginosis: Summary of Evidence Reviewed for the 2021 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines

Antibiofilm Agents for the Treatment and Prevention of Bacterial Vaginosis: A Systematic Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is difficult to eradicate due to BV biofilms protecting BV bacteria (Gardnerella, Prevotella, and other genera). With the growing understanding of biofilms, we systematically reviewed the current knowledge on the efficacy of anti-BV biofilm agents.

METHODS

We searched literature in the Scopus, Medline, and Embase databases for empirical studies investigating substances for the treatment of BV biofilms or prevention of their recurrence and their efficacy and/or safety.

RESULTS

Of 201 unique titles, 35 satisfied the inclusion criteria. Most studies (89%) reported on preclinical laboratory research on the efficacy of experimental antibiofilm agents (80%) rather than their safety. Over 50% were published within the past 5 years. Agents were classified into 7 groups: antibiotics, antiseptics, cationic peptides, enzymes, plant extracts, probiotics, and surfactants/surfactant components. Enzymes and probiotics were most commonly investigated. Earlier reports of antibiotics having anti-BV biofilm activity have not been confirmed. Some compounds from other classes demonstrated promising anti-BV biofilm efficacy in early studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Further research is anticipated on successful antibiofilm agents. If confirmed as effective and safe in human clinical trials, they may offer a breakthrough in BV treatment. With rising antibiotic resistance, antibiofilm agents will significantly improve the current standard of care for BV management.

Assessment and Treatment of Vaginitis

Vaginitis is the presenting symptom at millions of office visits each year in the United States. Although treatment of sporadic cases is often straightforward, recurrent cases present both diagnostic and treatment challenges. Molecular diagnostic tests are likely superior to in-office microscopy for most clinicians and most cases. In both recurrent bacterial vaginosis and recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis, national treatment guidelines recommend an extended treatment duration with one of the first-line agents. In cases in which such treatment is not successful, vaginal boric acid is likely the cheapest and easiest alternative option. New antifungal medications offer additional but limited treatment options. Probiotics are not recommended for prevention of vulvovaginal candidiasis; however, vaginal products containing Lactobacillus crispatus may have promise for recurrent bacterial vaginosis. Trichomoniasis should be treated with a 1-week course of metronidazole; this is the only sexually transmitted infection for which treatment recommendations vary by sex. In cases in which patients do not respond to initial treatment, the diagnosis should be reconsidered, and other potential causes such as desquamative inflammatory vaginitis, genitourinary syndrome of menopause, or vulvodynia should be considered.

Bacterial Vaginosis Treatment Patterns, Associated Complications, and Health Care Economic Burden of Women With Medicaid Coverage in the United States

BACKGROUND

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a highly prevalent vaginal infection.

OBJECTIVES

Primary objectives of this study were to examine treatment patterns among female patients with Medicaid coverage who were diagnosed with incident BV, the frequency of BV-associated complications, and health care resource utilization (HCRU) and associated costs of incident BV and its recurrence. Secondary objectives were to identify predictors of total all-cause health care costs and number of treatment courses.

METHODS

Female patients aged 12-49 years with an incident vaginitis diagnosis and ≥1 pharmacy claim for a BV medication were selected from the Merative MarketScan Medicaid database (2017-2020). Additional treatment courses were evaluated during a ≥12-month follow-up period, in which new cases of BV-associated complications and HCRU and the associated costs were also measured. Generalized linear models were used to identify baseline predictors of total all-cause health care costs and number of treatment courses.

RESULTS

An incident vaginitis diagnosis and ≥1 BV medication claim were present in 114 313 patients (mean age: 28.4 years; 48.6% black). During the follow-up, 56.6% had 1 treatment course, 24.9% had 2, 10.2% had 3, and 8.3% had ≥4; 43.4% had BV recurrence. Oral metronidazole (88.5%) was the most frequently prescribed medication. Nearly 1 in 5 had a new occurrence of a BV-associated complication; most (76.6%) were sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Total all-cause and BV-related costs averaged $5794 and $300, respectively, per patient; both increased among those with more treatment courses. Older age, pregnancy, comorbidity, any STIs, postprocedural gynecological infection (PGI), and infertility were predictive of higher total all-cause health care costs, while race/ethnicity other than white was predictive of lower costs. Older age, black race, any STIs, pelvic inflammatory disease, and PGI were predictive of >1 treatment courses.

CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE

The high recurrence of BV represents an unmet need in women's health care and better treatments are necessary.

Sexual transmission of urogenital bacteria: whole metagenome sequencing evidence from a sexual network study

Sexual transmission of the urogenital microbiota may contribute to adverse sexual and reproductive health outcomes. The extent of sexual transmission of the urogenital microbiota is unclear as prior studies largely investigated specific pathogens. We used epidemiologic data and whole metagenome sequencing to characterize urogenital microbiota strain concordance between participants of a sexual network study. Individuals who screened positive for genital Chlamydia trachomatis were enrolled and referred their sexual contacts from the prior 60-180 days. Snowball recruitment of sexual contacts continued for up to four waves. Vaginal swabs and penile urethral swabs were collected for whole metagenome sequencing. We evaluated bacterial strain concordance using inStrain and network analysis. We defined concordance as ≥99.99% average nucleotide identity over ≥50% shared coverage; we defined putative sexual transmission as concordance between sexual contacts with <5 single-nucleotide polymorphisms per megabase. Of 138 participants, 74 (54%) were female; 120 (87%) had genital chlamydia; and 43 (31%) were recruited contacts. We identified 115 strain-concordance events among 54 participants representing 25 bacterial species. Seven events (6%) were between sexual contacts including putative heterosexual transmission of Fannyhessea vaginae, Gardnerella leopoldii, Prevotella amnii, Sneathia sanguinegens, and Sneathia vaginalis (one strain each), and putative sexual transmission of Lactobacillus iners between female contacts. Most concordance events (108, 94%) were between non-contacts, including eight female participants connected through 18 Lactobacillus crispatus and 3 Lactobacillus jensenii concordant strains, and 14 female and 2 male participants densely interconnected through 52 Gardnerella swidsinskii concordance events.IMPORTANCEEpidemiologic evidence consistently indicates bacterial vaginosis (BV) is sexually associated and may be sexually transmitted, though sexual transmission remains subject to debate. This study is not capable of demonstrating BV sexual transmission; however, we do provide strain-level metagenomic evidence that strongly supports heterosexual transmission of BV-associated species. These findings strengthen the evidence base that supports ongoing investigations of concurrent male partner treatment for reducing BV recurrence. Our data suggest that measuring the impact of male partner treatment on F. vaginae, G. leopoldii, P. amnii, S. sanguinegens, and S. vaginalis may provide insight into why a regimen does or does not perform well. We also observed a high degree of strain concordance between non-sexual-contact female participants. We posit that this may reflect limited dispersal capacity of vaginal bacteria coupled with individuals' comembership in regional transmission networks where transmission may occur between parent and child at birth, cohabiting individuals, or sexual contacts.

Treatment patterns and economic burden of bacterial vaginosis among commercially insured women in the USA

Aim: Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal dysbiosis associated with adverse clinical sequelae, most notably, increased risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The aims of this study were to estimate the frequency of BV recurrence, treatment patterns, other gynecological (GYN) conditions, and the associated healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) and costs among commercially insured patients in the USA. Patients & methods: Female patients aged 12-49 years with an incident vaginitis diagnosis and ≥1 pharmacy claim for a BV medication (fungal treatment only excluded) were selected from the Merative™ MarketScan commercial database (2017-2020). During a minimum 12-month follow-up, additional treatment courses, treatment patterns, frequency of other GYN conditions, and HCRU and costs were assessed. Generalized linear models were used to identify baseline predictors of total all-cause healthcare costs and number of treatment courses. Results: The study population included 140,826 patients (mean age: 31.5 years) with an incident vaginitis diagnosis and ≥1 BV medication claim. During the follow-up, 64.2% had 1 treatment course, 22.0% had 2, 8.1% had 3, and 5.8% had ≥4; 35.8% had a BV recurrence (≥2 BV medication claims). The most commonly prescribed BV medication was oral metronidazole (73.6%). Approximately 12% (n = 16,619) of patients had a new diagnosis of another GYN condition in the follow-up; 8.2% had a new STI, which were more common among patients with ≥4 treatment courses (12.9%). During follow-up, total all-cause healthcare costs averaged $8987 per patient per year (PPPY) of which $470 was BV-related. BV-related healthcare costs increased from $403 PPPY among those with 1 treatment course to $806 PPPY among those with ≥4 with nearly half the costs attributed to outpatient office visits. Conclusion: BV recurrence among this population represented a substantial clinical and healthcare economic burden warranting improvements in women's healthcare.

State of the Art for Diagnosis of Bacterial Vaginosis

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most common cause of vaginal discharge among reproductive-age women. It is associated with multiple adverse health outcomes, including increased risk of acquisition of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), in addition to adverse birth outcomes. While it is known that BV is a vaginal dysbiosis characterized by a shift in the vaginal microbiota from protective Lactobacillus species to an increase in facultative and strict anaerobic bacteria, its exact etiology remains unknown. The purpose of this minireview is to provide an updated overview of the range of tests currently used for the diagnosis of BV in both clinical and research settings. This article is divided into two primary sections: traditional BV diagnostics and molecular diagnostics. Molecular diagnostic assays, particularly 16S rRNA gene sequencing, shotgun metagenomic sequencing, and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), are specifically highlighted, in addition to multiplex nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), given their increasing use in clinical practice (NAATs) and research studies (16S rRNA gene sequencing, shotgun metagenomic sequencing, and FISH) regarding the vaginal microbiota and BV pathogenesis. We also provide a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of current BV diagnostic tests and discuss future challenges in this field of research.

Understanding and Preventing Recurring Bacterial Vaginosis: Important Considerations for Clinicians

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most common vaginal infection worldwide. It is associated with an increased risk of acquisition of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) as well as pelvic inflammatory disease and adverse birth outcomes. During BV, a polymicrobial biofilm forms on the surface of the vaginal mucosa. However, the exact etiology of BV remains controversial which has impeded significant advances in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Despite 30-day cure rates approaching 80% in BV-infected women treated with 7 days of oral metronidazole, recurrence within 12 months is common. This article provides a current review of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of recurrent BV for practicing clinicians who commonly see women with this recurrent vaginal infection. Regarding management, we focus primarily on antimicrobial measures that may be effective. Future areas of research in this field are also discussed.

Risk factors of recurrent bacterial vaginosis among women of reproductive age: A cross-sectional study

The aim of this study was to explore risk factors of recurrent bacterial vaginosis (RBV) among women of reproductive age. This cross-sectional study was carried out in real-world conditions. Women with RBV were selected, and simultaneously uncomplicated bacterial vaginosis (UBV) and those who underwent routine gynecological examination and had normal vaginal microflora were also recruited as the control. Totally, 316 participants were enrolled. Univariate analysis showed that unemployment, desserts, and wiping were related to UBV, while there was no definite relationship between education, high body mass index, smoking, sedentary lifestyle, and RBV or UBV. History of human papillomavirus infection, contraceptive methods, age at first sexual intercourse, and not cleaning vulva during sexual activity were connected with UBV, while the history of other vaginitis and number of sexual partners in the previous year were related to both RBV and UBV. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that lower educational level increased the risk of suffering RBV. Interestingly, no smoking was a protective factor. Moreover, the absence of other vaginitis and an exclusive sexual partner could also weaken the risk of incurring RBV. These various adverse factors alter endocrine function and vaginal immunity, further leading to the recurrence of BV. It is necessary to take corresponding measures to avoid risk factors and to help lessening the prevalence of RBV among women of reproductive age.

Point-of-Care Testing for Sexually Transmitted Infections

Point-of-care testing for sexually transmitted infections is essential for controlling transmission and preventing sequelae in high-risk populations. Since the World Health Organization published the ASSURED criteria, point-of-care testing has improved for use in large population screening and rapid testing that prevents loss of clinical follow-up. Recent advancements have been advantageous for low-resource areas allowing testing at a minimal cost without reliable electricity or refrigeration. Point-of-care nucleic acid detection and amplification techniques are recommended, but are often inaccessible in low-resource areas. Future advancements in point-of-care diagnostic testing should focus on improving antibody-based assays, monitoring viral loads, and detecting antimicrobial resistance.

Bacterial vaginosis: a review of approaches to treatment and prevention

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common cause of vaginitis worldwide and is associated with serious reproductive health outcomes, including increased risk of preterm birth, sexually transmitted infections, and pelvic inflammatory disease. The current and only FDA-approved treatment regimens for BV are antibiotics, such as metronidazole and clindamycin. Antibiotics provide a short-term cure for bacterial vaginosis; however, fail to provide a consistent long-term cure for many women. Fifty to eighty percent of women experience a BV recurrence within a year of completing antibiotic treatment. This may be because after antibiotic treatment, beneficial strains of Lactobacillus, such as L. crispatus, do not recolonize the vagina. In the absence of an effective long-term cure, patients, providers, and researchers are exploring different approaches to treatment and prevention, resulting in a rapid evolution of perspectives on BV pathogenesis and approaches to management. Current areas of investigation for BV management include probiotics, vaginal microbiome transplantation, pH modulation, and biofilm disruption. Behavioral modifications that may help include smoking cessation, condom use and hormonal contraception. Additional strategies considered by many people include dietary modification, non-medical vaginally applied products, choice of lubricant, and treatments from medical practices outside of allopathic medicine. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and up to date outline of the landscape of ongoing and potential treatment and prevention strategies for BV.

Clinical Evaluation of a New Molecular Test for the Detection of Organisms Causing Vaginitis and Vaginosis

In this prospective, observational, method comparison clinical study, the Xpert Xpress MVP test (MVP) was evaluated using both clinician-collected (CVS) and self-collected vaginal swabs (SVS) collected in a clinical setting. The study was conducted at 12 sites, including point-of-care (POC) settings, from geographically diverse locations in the United States. Participants were biologically female patients ≥ 14 years old with signs and/or symptoms of vaginitis/vaginosis. MVP test results for BV were compared to the BD MAX Vaginal Panel (BDVP). Results for Candida group and Candida glabrata and Candida krusei targets (species not differentiated) were assessed relative to yeast culture followed by mass spectrometry for species identification. Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) results were compared relative to a composite method that included results from the BDVP and InPouch TV culture. The investigational test demonstrated high positive percent agreement ranging from 93.6 to 99.0%, and negative percent agreement ranging from 92.1% to 99.8% for both CVS and SVS specimens, indicating it may be a valuable tool for the diagnosis of vaginitis/vaginosis in laboratory and POC settings.

The role of the genital microbiota in the acquisition and pathogenesis of sexually transmitted infections

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There are an estimated 374 million new sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide every year. Our review article examines the current evidence of how STI acquisition, transmission, and pathogenesis is impacted upon by the genital microbiota, with a focus on epidemiological, biochemical, and immunological features.

RECENT FINDINGS

At least in women, a genital microbiota dominated by lactobacilli has long been considered optimal for reproductive health, while depletion of lactobacilli may lead to a genital microenvironment dominated by anaerobic pathogens, which can manifest clinically as bacterial vaginosis. Recent research efforts have characterized genital microbiota composition in greater resolution, sometimes at species-level, using proteomics, metabolomics, and deep sequencing. This has enhanced our understanding of how specific microbiota members influence acquisition or clinical manifestation of STI pathogen infection. Other advances include a steady, though still slow, increase in the number of studies that sought to determine the genital (penile or urethral) microbiota of males and how it may impact that of their female partners' genital microbiota and risk of STI acquisition. Altogether, these data enabled us to explore the concept that genital microbiota may be sexually transmitted and influence pathogenesis and clinical presentation of other STI.

SUMMARY

With STI infection rates increasing worldwide, it is important now more than ever to find novel STI prevention strategies. Understanding if and how the genital microbiota is a modifiable risk factor for STI transmission, acquisition, and clinical manifestation may prove to be an important strategy in our efforts to curb morbidity in at risk populations.

Psychosocial impact of recurrent urogenital infections: a review

Recurrent urogenital infections such as bacterial vaginosis, vulvovaginal candidiasis, and urinary tract infections have a high prevalence and pronounced psychosocial impact. However, no review has compared the psychosocial impacts across infection types. This narrative review discusses the impact of common recurrent urogenital infections on psychosocial aspects, including quality of life, stress, mental health, sexual health, work productivity, race and ethnicity, and satisfaction of medical care. Validated questionnaires show that women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis and urinary tract infections have decreased scores on all aspects of quality of life. Those with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis and urinary tract infections show lower mental health scores compared to the general population, with increased risk of anxiety and depression. Recurrent urogenital infections affect sexual relationships and intimacy, including avoidance due to symptoms or as a method of prevention. Recurrent infections also increase medical cost and negatively affect work productivity, leading to a combined estimated cost of over US$13 billion per year. There are clear effects of racial inequality involving minority populations that affect diagnosis, treatment, prevalence, and reporting of recurrent urogenital infections. Satisfactory medical treatment improves quality of life and mental health in those suffering from these conditions. Research evaluating psychosocial aspects of recurrent urogenital infections is variable and is not comparable across vulvovaginal conditions. Even so, psychosocial factors are important in understanding contribution and consequence of urogenital infections. Education, awareness, normalization, community support, and access to care can help to alleviate the negative implications of recurrent urogenital infections.

Bacterial Vaginosis in Postmenopausal Women

Purpose of Review

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most common vaginal infection worldwide, but most research has been conducted in premenopausal women. After menopause, endogenous estrogen production decreases, often leading to the genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM), characterized by vulvovaginal dryness and irritation. The estrogen-deficient postmenopausal state results in an elevated vaginal pH and depletion of vaginal lactobacilli. Use of traditional BV diagnostics (Amsel criteria, Nugent score) is difficult in post-menopausal women, especially those not on estrogen replacement therapy, as these methods were originally developed in premenopausal women. In this review, we discuss recent clinical data on BV in postmenopausal women, difficulties in diagnosis using traditional methods, the role of BV molecular diagnostics, and our current expert opinion for managing BV in this population.

Recent Findings

BV prevalence has been found to range between 2%-57% among postmenopausal women per Amsel and Nugent criteria. This is likely an over-estimate of the true prevalence due to limitations in these criteria which were only validated in pre-menopausal women. Despite increasing diagnostic options for BV in recent years, including highly sensitive and specific BV nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), the physiologic changes of menopause and limited inclusion of postmenopausal women in clinical studies, diagnosis is difficult in this population. Recent studies utilizing 16s rRNA gene sequencing suggest that the vaginal microbiota of premenopausal and postmenopausal women is quite different, even if BV is not present. Data also suggest that obese postmenopausal women have significantly lower rates of BV compared to non-obese postmenopausal women, although further research is needed in this area. Multiple treatment options exist for vaginal atrophy and BV in this population.

Summary

Data are limited regarding optimal diagnostic approaches for BV in postmenopausal women; BV NAATs and 16s rRNA gene sequencing may have a role for diagnosing BV in symptomatic women although further studies are needed. Menopausal women with characteristic vaginal symptoms and an elevated vaginal pH should be initially treated for estrogen deficiency prior to considering a diagnosis of BV; subsequent treatment for BV should be driven by symptoms.