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Zhang K, Zhang L. Determination of Patulin in Apple Juice and Apple-Derived Products Using a Robotic Sample Preparation System and LC-APCI-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:238. [PMID: 38922133 PMCID: PMC11209136 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16060238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Patulin, a toxic mycotoxin, can contaminate apple-derived products. The FDA has established an action level of 50 ppb (ng/g) for patulin in apple juice and apple juice products. To effectively monitor this mycotoxin, there is a need for adequate analytical methods that can reliably and efficiently determine patulin levels. In this work, we developed an automated sample preparation workflow followed by liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-APCI-MS/MS) detection to identify and quantify patulin in a single method, further expanding testing capabilities for monitoring patulin in foods compared to traditional optical methods. Using a robotic sample preparation system, apple juice, apple cider, apple puree, apple-based baby food, applesauce, fruit rolls, and fruit jam were fortified with 13C-patulin and extracted using dichloromethane (DCM) without human intervention, followed by an LC-APCI-MS/MS analysis in negative ionization mode. The method achieved a limit of quantification of 4.0 ng/g and linearity ranging from 2 to 1000 ng/mL (r2 > 0.99). Quantitation was performed with isotope dilution using 13C-patulin as an internal standard and solvent calibration standards. Average recoveries (relative standard deviations, RSD%) in seven spike matrices were 95% (9%) at 10 ng/g, 110% (5%) at 50 ng/g, 101% (7%) at 200 ng/g, and 104% (4%) at 1000 ng/g (n = 28). The ranges of within-matrix and between-matrix variability (RSD) were 3-8% and 4-9%, respectively. In incurred samples, the identity of patulin was further confirmed with a comparison of the information-dependent acquisition-enhanced product ion (IDA-EPI) MS/MS spectra to a reference standard. The metrological traceability of the patulin measurements in an incurred apple cider (21.1 ± 8.0 µg/g) and apple juice concentrate (56.6 ± 15.6 µg/g) was established using a certified reference material and calibration data to demonstrate data confidence intervals (k = 2, 95% confidence interval).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, USA;
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Zhang K, Flannery B, Zhang L. Challenges and Future State for Mycotoxin Analysis: A Review From a Regulatory Perspective. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:8380-8388. [PMID: 38578227 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain fungi. Exposure to mycotoxins may occur through the consumption of contaminated foods or from animals that are fed contaminated feed. To safeguard the nation's food supply, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) utilizes a comprehensive mycotoxin program which samples and analyzes foods for surveillance and compliance purposes, including enforcing action levels. Mycotoxin analysis is at the center of the mycotoxin program, as concentration data are needed for data analysis, scientific assessments, and risk management. This review focuses on the Agency's continuous efforts to develop and incorporate fit-for-purpose analytical tools for mycotoxin analysis with particular focus on the relationship between analytical methodologies and scientific assessments. The discussion further highlights challenges and advancements in analytical methods and discusses future possibilities to develop analytical tools and preventative risk management approaches to meet the evolving regulatory needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science. 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Brenna Flannery
- Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Analytics and Outreach, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
| | - Lauren Zhang
- Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science. 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
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Henderson A, Heaney LM, Rankin-Turner S. Ambient ionisation mass spectrometry for drug and toxin analysis: A review of the recent literature. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38326879 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Ambient ionisation mass spectrometry (AIMS) is a form of mass spectrometry whereby analyte ionisation occurs outside of a vacuum source under ambient conditions. This enables the direct analysis of samples in their native state, with little or no sample preparation and without chromatographic separation. The removal of these steps facilitates a much faster analytical process, enabling the direct analysis of samples within minutes if not seconds. Consequently, AIMS has gained rapid popularity across a diverse range of applications, in particular the analysis of drugs and toxins. Numerous fields rely upon mass spectrometry for the detection and identification of drugs, including clinical diagnostics, forensic chemistry, and food safety. However, all of these fields are hindered by the time-consuming and laboratory-confined nature of traditional techniques. As such, the potential for AIMS to resolve these challenges has resulted in a growing interest in ambient ionisation for drug and toxin analysis. Since the early 2000s, forensic science, diagnostic testing, anti-doping, pharmaceuticals, environmental analysis and food safety have all seen a marked increase in AIMS applications, foreshadowing a new future for drug testing. In this review, some of the most promising AIMS techniques for drug analysis will be discussed, alongside different applications of AIMS published over a 5-year period, to provide a summary of the recent research activity for ambient ionisation for drug and toxin analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisha Henderson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Liam M Heaney
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Stephanie Rankin-Turner
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Zhang K, Tran I, Tan S. Characterization of Particle-Size-Based Homogeneity and Mycotoxin Distribution Using Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analysis. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:450. [PMID: 37505719 PMCID: PMC10467063 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Sample homogeneity dictates whether analyzing a test portion of an entire sample can provide representative information about incurred mycotoxins. In this study, we evaluated particle-size-distribution-based homogeneity of laboratory mycotoxin samples using laser diffraction particle size analysis and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Guide 35: 2017. Incurred whole corn, compound feed, peanut butter, and wheat flour (500 g each) were comminuted using wet, cryogenic, or dry milling. We used a sample dividing (riffling) device to obtain representative subsamples (25 g each) and developed a laser diffraction particle size analysis procedure by optimizing key parameters such as the refractive index, absorption, and stirring rate. The homogeneity of the particle size distribution within laboratory subsamples was characterized using the optimized laser diffraction procedure. An assessment of homogeneity was also performed for individual mycotoxins in each incurred matrix sample following the procedure described in ISO Guide 35. The concentrations of the incurred mycotoxins were determined using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Within- and between-subsample variances of incurred aflatoxin B1 in peanut butter; deoxynivalenol in corn, compound feed, and wheat flour; and fumonisins in compound feed corroborated that when the particle size measurements were less than 850 µm, mycotoxins concentrations were consistent across independent test portions, which was confirmed using an analysis of variance (F-test). This study highlights the benefits of laser diffraction particle size analysis and suggests its use as a test procedure to evaluate homogeneity in new sample commodities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, USA; (I.T.); (S.T.)
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Current Developments of Analytical Methodologies for Aflatoxins' Determination in Food during the Last Decade (2013-2022), with a Particular Focus on Nuts and Nut Products. Foods 2023; 12:foods12030527. [PMID: 36766055 PMCID: PMC9914313 DOI: 10.3390/foods12030527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
This review aims to provide a clear overview of the most important analytical development in aflatoxins analysis during the last decade (2013-2022) with a particular focus on nuts and nuts-related products. Aflatoxins (AFs), a group of mycotoxins produced mainly by certain strains of the genus Aspergillus fungi, are known to impose a serious threat to human health. Indeed, AFs are considered carcinogenic to humans, group 1, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Since these toxins can be found in different food commodities, food control organizations worldwide impose maximum levels of AFs for commodities affected by this threat. Thus, they represent a cumbersome issue in terms of quality control, analytical result reliability, and economical losses. It is, therefore, mandatory for food industries to perform analysis on potentially contaminated commodities before the trade. A full perspective of the whole analytical workflow, considering each crucial step during AFs investigation, namely sampling, sample preparation, separation, and detection, will be presented to the reader, focusing on the main challenges related to the topic. A discussion will be primarily held regarding sample preparation methodologies such as partitioning, solid phase extraction (SPE), and immunoaffinity (IA) related methods. This will be followed by an overview of the leading analytical techniques for the detection of aflatoxins, in particular liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to a fluorescence detector (FLD) and/or mass spectrometry (MS). Moreover, the focus on the analytical procedure will not be specific only to traditional methodologies, such as LC, but also to new direct approaches based on imaging and the ability to detect AFs, reducing the need for sample preparation and separative techniques.
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Owolabi IO, Kolawole O, Jantarabut P, Elliott CT, Petchkongkaew A. The importance and mitigation of mycotoxins and plant toxins in Southeast Asian fermented foods. NPJ Sci Food 2022; 6:39. [PMID: 36045143 PMCID: PMC9433409 DOI: 10.1038/s41538-022-00152-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Fermented foods (ffs) and beverages are widely consumed in Southeast Asia (SEA) for their nutritional balance, flavor, and food security. They serve as vehicles for beneficial microorganisms performing a significant role in human health. However, there are still major challenges concerning the safety of ffs and beverages due to the presence of natural toxins. In this review, the common toxins found in traditional ffs in SEA are discussed with special reference to mycotoxins and plant toxins. Also, mitigation measures for preventing risks associated with their consumption are outlined. Ochratoxin, citrinin, aflatoxins were reported to be major mycotoxins present in SEA ffs. In addition, soybean-based ff food products were more vulnerable to mycotoxin contaminations. Common plant toxins recorded in ffs include cyanogenic glycosides, oxalates, phytates and saponins. Combined management strategies such as pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest control and decontamination, through the integration of different control methods such as the use of clean seeds, biological control methods, fermentation, appropriate packaging systems, and controlled processing conditions are needed for the safe consumption of indigenous ffs in SEA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iyiola O Owolabi
- School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, 99 Mhu 18, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand.,International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Oluwatobi Kolawole
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens Belfast, BT9 5DL, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Phantakan Jantarabut
- School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, 99 Mhu 18, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand.,International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Christopher T Elliott
- International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand.,Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens Belfast, BT9 5DL, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Awanwee Petchkongkaew
- School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, 99 Mhu 18, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand. .,International Joint Research Center on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand. .,Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen's University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens Belfast, BT9 5DL, Belfast, Northern Ireland.
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Critical Assessment of Mycotoxins in Beverages and Their Control Measures. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050323. [PMID: 33946240 PMCID: PMC8145492 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that contaminate food products such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, and other agricultural commodities. Their occurrence in the food chain, especially in beverages, can pose a serious risk to human health, due to their toxicity, even at low concentrations. Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes (TCs), zearalenone (ZEN), and the alternaria toxins including alternariol, altenuene, and alternariol methyl ether have largely been identified in fruits and their derived products, such as beverages and drinks. The presence of mycotoxins in beverages is of high concern in some cases due to their levels being higher than the limits set by regulations. This review aims to summarize the toxicity of the major mycotoxins that occur in beverages, the methods available for their detection and quantification, and the strategies for their control. In addition, some novel techniques for controlling mycotoxins in the postharvest stage are highlighted.
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Zhang K, Banerjee K. A Review: Sample Preparation and Chromatographic Technologies for Detection of Aflatoxins in Foods. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E539. [PMID: 32825718 PMCID: PMC7551558 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a class of mycotoxins with regulatory and public health significance, aflatoxins (e.g., aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2) have attracted unparalleled attention from government, academia and industry due to their chronic and acute toxicity. Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of various Aspergillus species, which are ubiquitous in the environment and can grow on a variety of crops whereby accumulation is impacted by climate influences. Consumption of foods and feeds contaminated by aflatoxins are hazardous to human and animal health, hence the detection and quantification of aflatoxins in foods and feeds is a priority from the viewpoint of food safety. Since the first purification and identification of aflatoxins from feeds in the 1960s, there have been continuous efforts to develop sensitive and rapid methods for the determination of aflatoxins. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview on advances in aflatoxins analysis and highlights the importance of sample pretreatments, homogenization and various cleanup strategies used in the determination of aflatoxins. The use of liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), solid phase extraction (SPE) and immunoaffinity column clean-up (IAC) and dilute and shoot for enhancing extraction efficiency and clean-up are discussed. Furthermore, the analytical techniques such as gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), mass spectrometry (MS), capillary electrophoresis (CE) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) are compared in terms of identification, quantitation and throughput. Lastly, with the emergence of new techniques, the review culminates with prospects of promising technologies for aflatoxin analysis in the foreseeable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- US Food and Drug Administration/Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, USA
| | - Kaushik Banerjee
- National Reference Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune 412307, India;
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