1
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DeKold J, Robertson D. Experimental error analysis of biomechanical phenotyping for stalk lodging resistance in maize. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12178. [PMID: 37500669 PMCID: PMC10374599 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38767-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Stalk lodging destroys between 5 and 25% of grain crops annually. Developing crop varieties with improved lodging resistance will reduce the yield gap. Field-phenotyping equipment is critical to develop lodging resistant crop varieties, but current equipment is hindered by measurement error. Relatively little research has been done to identify and rectify sources of measurement error in biomechanical phenotyping platforms. This study specifically investigated sources of error in bending stiffness and bending strength measurements of maize stalks acquired using an in-field phenotyping platform known as the DARLING. Three specific sources of error in bending stiffness and bending strength measurements were evaluated: horizontal device placement, vertical device placement and incorrect recordings of load cell height. Incorrect load cell heights introduced errors as large as 130% in bending stiffness and 50% in bending strength. Results indicated that errors on the order of 15-25% in bending stiffness and 1-10% in bending strength are common in field-based measurements. Improving the design of phenotyping devices and associated operating procedures can mitigate this error. Reducing measurement error in field-phenotyping equipment is crucial for advancing the development of improved, lodging-resistant crop varieties. Findings have important implications for reducing the yield gap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph DeKold
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 0902, Moscow, ID, 83844-0902, USA
| | - Daniel Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 0902, Moscow, ID, 83844-0902, USA.
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2
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Sutherland B, Steele K, Carter J, Cook DD. The influence of water content on the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of maize stalk pith and rind tissues. PLANT METHODS 2023; 19:64. [PMID: 37391797 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-023-01039-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Modern computational modeling could provide the key to obtaining new insights into the mechanisms of maize stalk failure as well as suggesting new ways to improve stalk strength. However, a complete set of mechanical properties of maize tissues is required to enable computational modeling of maize stems. This study developed two compression test methods for obtaining the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of both rind and pith tissues, assessed the influence of water content on tissue properties, and investigated the relationship between rind modulus and pith modulus. These methods involved uniform 5-7 cm segments of maize stems which were scanned using a flatbed scanner then tested in compression using a universal testing machine in both intact and dissected (rind-only and pith-only) states. RESULTS The modulus of elasticity of pith tissues was highest for fully turgid specimens and decreased as water was removed from the specimens. Water content was negatively correlated with the modulus of elasticity of the rind. Rind and pith tissues were found to be weakly correlated. The median ratio of rind modulus to pith modulus was found to be 17. Of the two methods investigated, the pith-only specimen preparation was found to be simple reliable while the rind-only method was found to be adversely affected by lateral bowing of the specimen. CONCLUSIONS Researchers can use the information in this paper to improve computational models of maize stems in three ways: (1) by incorporating realistic values of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of pith and rind tissues; (2) by selecting pith and rind properties that match empirically observed ratios; and (3) by incorporating appropriate dependencies between these material properties and water content. From an experimental perspective, the intact/pith-only experimental method outlined in this paper is simpler than previously reported methods and provides reliable estimates of both pith and rind modulus of elasticity values. Further research using this measurement method is recommended to more clearly understand the influence of water content and turgor pressure on tissue properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Sutherland
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Kirsten Steele
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Joseph Carter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Douglas D Cook
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA.
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3
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Nakashima T, Tomobe H, Morigaki T, Yang M, Yamaguchi H, Kato Y, Guo W, Sharma V, Kimura H, Morikawa H. Non-destructive high-throughput measurement of elastic-viscous properties of maize using a novel ultra-micro sensor array and numerical validation. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4914. [PMID: 36966212 PMCID: PMC10039934 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32130-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Maize is the world's most produced cereal crop, and the selection of maize cultivars with a high stem elastic modulus is an effective method to prevent cereal crop lodging. We developed an ultra-compact sensor array inspired by earthquake engineering and proposed a method for the high-throughput evaluation of the elastic modulus of maize cultivars. A natural vibration analysis based on the obtained Young's modulus using finite element analysis (FEA) was performed and compared with the experimental results, which showed that the estimated Young's modulus is representative of the individual Young's modulus. FEA also showed the hotspot where the stalk was most deformed when the corn was vibrated by wind. The six tested cultivars were divided into two phenotypic groups based on the position and number of hotspots. In this study, we proposed a non-destructive high-throughput phenotyping technique for estimating the modulus of elasticity of maize stalks and successfully visualized which parts of the stalks should be improved for specific cultivars to prevent lodging.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Wei Guo
- University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Gangwar T, Susko AQ, Baranova S, Guala M, Smith KP, Heuschele DJ. Multi-scale modelling predicts plant stem bending behaviour in response to wind to inform lodging resistance. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:221410. [PMID: 36636313 PMCID: PMC9810429 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Lodging impedes the successful cultivation of cereal crops. Complex anatomy, morphology and environmental interactions make identifying reliable and measurable traits for breeding challenging. Therefore, we present a unique collaboration among disciplines for plant science, modelling and simulations, and experimental fluid dynamics in a broader context of breeding lodging resilient wheat and oat. We ran comprehensive wind tunnel experiments to quantify the stem bending behaviour of both cereals under controlled aerodynamic conditions. Measured phenotypes from experiments concluded that the wheat stems response is stiffer than the oat. However, these observations did not in themselves establish causal relationships of this observed behaviour with the physical traits of the plants. To further investigate we created an independent finite-element simulation framework integrating our recently developed multi-scale material modelling approach to predict the mechanical response of wheat and oat stems. All the input parameters including chemical composition, tissue characteristics and plant morphology have a strong physiological meaning in the hierarchical organization of plants, and the framework is free from empirical parameter tuning. This feature of our simulation framework reveals the multi-scale origin of the observed wide differences in the stem strength of both cereals that would not have been possible with purely experimental approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarun Gangwar
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Alexander Q. Susko
- Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Svetlana Baranova
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Michele Guala
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Kevin P. Smith
- Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - D. Jo Heuschele
- Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
- Plant Science Research Unit, USDA – Agricultural Research Services, St. Paul, MN, USA
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Stubbs CJ, McMahan CS, Tabaracci K, Kunduru B, Sekhon RS, Robertson DJ. Cross-sectional geometry predicts failure location in maize stalks. PLANT METHODS 2022; 18:56. [PMID: 35477510 PMCID: PMC9044803 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-022-00887-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Stalk lodging occurs when high winds induce bending moments in the stalk which exceed the bending strength of the plant. Previous biomechanical models of plant stalks have investigated the effect of cross-sectional morphology on stalk lodging resistance (e.g., diameter and rind thickness). However, it is unclear if the location of stalk failure along the length of stem is determined by morphological or compositional factors. It is also unclear if the crops are structurally optimized, i.e., if the plants allocate structural biomass to create uniform and minimal bending stresses in the plant tissues. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate the relationship between bending stress and failure location of maize stalks, and (2) to investigate the potential of phenotyping for internode-level bending stresses to assess lodging resistance. RESULTS 868 maize specimens representing 16 maize hybrids were successfully tested in bending to failure. Internode morphology was measured, and bending stresses were calculated. It was found that bending stress is highly and positively associated with failure location. A user-friendly computational tool is presented to help plant breeders in phenotyping for internode-level bending stress. Phenotyping for internode-level bending stresses could potentially be used to breed for more biomechanically optimal stalks that are resistant to stalk lodging. CONCLUSIONS Internode-level bending stress plays a potentially critical role in the structural integrity of plant stems. Equations and tools provided herein enable researchers to account for this phenotype, which has the potential to increase the bending strength of plants without increasing overall structural biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Stubbs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
- School of Computer Sciences and Engineering, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck, NJ, USA
| | - Christopher S McMahan
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Kaitlin Tabaracci
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
| | - Bharath Kunduru
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Rajandeep S Sekhon
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Daniel J Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.
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Stubbs CJ, Larson R, Cook DD. Maize stalk stiffness and strength are primarily determined by morphological factors. Sci Rep 2022; 12:720. [PMID: 35031627 PMCID: PMC8760316 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04114-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The maize (Zea mays) stem is a biological structure that must balance both biotic and structural load bearing duties. These competing requirements are particularly relevant in the design of new bioenergy crops. Although increased stem digestibility is typically associated with a lower structural strength and higher propensity for lodging, with the right balance between structural and biological activities it may be possible to design crops that are high-yielding and have digestible biomass. This study investigates the hypothesis that geometric factors are much more influential in determining structural strength than tissue properties. To study these influences, both physical and in silico experiments were used. First, maize stems were tested in three-point bending. Specimen-specific finite element models were created based on x-ray computed tomography scans. Models were validated by comparison with experimental data. Sensitivity analyses were used to assess the influence of structural parameters such as geometric and material properties. As hypothesized, geometry was found to have a much stronger influence on structural stability than material properties. This information reinforces the notion that deficiencies in tissue strength could be offset by manipulation of stalk morphology, thus allowing the creation of stalks which are both resilient and digestible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Stubbs
- School of Computer Sciences and Engineering, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck, NJ, 07666, USA
| | - Ryan Larson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Douglas D Cook
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA.
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Oduntan YA, Stubbs CJ, Robertson DJ. High throughput phenotyping of cross-sectional morphology to assess stalk lodging resistance. PLANT METHODS 2022; 18:1. [PMID: 34983578 PMCID: PMC8725315 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-021-00833-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stalk lodging (mechanical failure of plant stems during windstorms) leads to global yield losses in cereal crops estimated to range from 5% to 25% annually. The cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks is a key determinant of stalk lodging resistance. However, previously developed techniques for quantifying cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks are relatively low-throughput, expensive and often require specialized equipment and expertise. There is need for a simple and cost-effective technique to quantify plant traits related to stalk lodging resistance in a high-throughput manner. RESULTS A new phenotyping methodology was developed and applied to a range of plant samples including, maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), wheat (Triticum aestivum), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), and Arabidopsis (Arabis thaliana). The major diameter, minor diameter, rind thickness and number of vascular bundles were quantified for each of these plant types. Linear correlation analyses demonstrated strong agreement between the newly developed method and more time-consuming manual techniques (R2 > 0.9). In addition, the new method was used to generate several specimen-specific finite element models of plant stalks. All the models compiled without issue and were successfully imported into finite element software for analysis. All the models demonstrated reasonable and stable solutions when subjected to realistic applied loads. CONCLUSIONS A rapid, low-cost, and user-friendly phenotyping methodology was developed to quantify two-dimensional plant cross-sections. The methodology offers reduced sample preparation time and cost as compared to previously developed techniques. The new methodology employs a stereoscope and a semi-automated image processing algorithm. The algorithm can be used to produce specimen-specific, dimensionally accurate computational models (including finite element models) of plant stalks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuf A Oduntan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Christopher J Stubbs
- School of Computer Sciences and Engineering, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck, NJ, 07666, USA
| | - Daniel J Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA.
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Muszynska A, Guendel A, Melzer M, Tandron Moya YA, Röder MS, Rolletschek H, Rutten T, Munz E, Melz G, Ortleb S, Borisjuk L, Börner A. A mechanistic view on lodging resistance in rye and wheat: a multiscale comparative study. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2021; 19:2646-2661. [PMID: 34449959 PMCID: PMC8633492 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The development of crop varieties that are resistant to lodging is a top priority for breeding programmes. Herein, we characterize the rye mutant ´Stabilstroh' ('stable straw') possessing an exceptional combination of high lodging resistance, tall posture and high biomass production. Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging displayed the 3-dimensional assembly of vascular bundles in stem. A higher number of vascular bundles and a higher degree of their incline were the features of lodging-resistant versus lodging-prone lines. Histology and electron microscopy revealed that stems are fortified by a higher proportion of sclerenchyma and thickened cell walls, as well as some epidermal invaginations. Biochemical analysis using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry further identified elevated levels of lignin, xylan, zinc and silicon as features associated with high lodging resistance. Combined effects of above features caused superior culm stability. A simplistic mathematical model showed how mechanical forces distribute within the stem under stress. Main traits of the lodging-resistant parental line were heritable and could be traced back to the genetic structure of the mutant. Evaluation of lodging-resistant wheat 'Babax' ('Baviacora') versus contrasting, lodging-prone, genotype ´Pastor´ agreed with above findings on rye. Our findings on mechanical stability and extraordinary culm properties may be important for breeders for the improvement of lodging resistance of tall posture cereal crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Muszynska
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Andre Guendel
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Michael Melzer
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | | | - Marion S. Röder
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Hardy Rolletschek
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Twan Rutten
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Eberhard Munz
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
- Institute of Experimental Physics 5University of WürzburgWürzburgGermany
| | | | - Stefan Ortleb
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Ljudmilla Borisjuk
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
| | - Andreas Börner
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK)Stadt SeelandGermany
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Stucker AM, Morris E, Stubbs CJ, Robertson DJ. The Crop Clamp - A non-destructive electromechanical pinch test to evaluate stalk lodging resistance. HARDWAREX 2021; 10:e00226. [PMID: 35607692 PMCID: PMC9123449 DOI: 10.1016/j.ohx.2021.e00226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Given the ever-increasing world population, maize plays a pivotal role in global food security. A major obstacle facing farmers is stalk lodging (the breakage of the stalk before harvest), which leads to substantial losses in annual yields. Weather, disease, and pest damage are major contributors to stalk lodging. Traditionally, evaluating a stalk's tendency to lodge was achieved with a 'pinch' test: pinching the stalk by hand to estimate its transverse stiffness. This test is inherently qualitative, and results vary from person to person. To combat these problems, a portable, battery-operated, non-destructive device for precisely measuring the transverse stiffness of maize stalks, known as the Crop Clamp, has been developed. The device is capable of recording over 100 measurements per hour and has been validated against laboratory tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M. Stucker
- AgMEQ Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
| | - Ethan Morris
- AgMEQ Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
| | - Christopher J. Stubbs
- AgMEQ Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
| | - Daniel J. Robertson
- AgMEQ Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, Moscow, ID 83843, USA
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Stubbs CJ, McMahan C, Seegmiller W, Cook DD, Robertson DJ. Integrated Puncture Score: force-displacement weighted rind penetration tests improve stalk lodging resistance estimations in maize. PLANT METHODS 2020; 16:113. [PMID: 32821268 PMCID: PMC7429900 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-020-00654-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) is a multi-billion dollar a year problem. Rind penetration resistance tests have been used by plant scientists and breeders to estimate the stalk lodging resistance of maize for nearly a hundred years. However, the rind puncture method has two key limitations: (1) the predictive power of the test decreases significantly when measuring elite or pre-commercial hybrids, and (2) using rind penetration measurements as a breeding metric does not necessarily create stronger stalks. In this study, we present a new rind penetration method called the Integrated Puncture Score, which uses a modified rind penetration testing protocol and a physics-based model to provide a robust measure of stalk lodging resistance. RESULTS Two datasets, one with a diverse array of maize hybrids and one with only elite hybrids, were evaluated by comparing traditional rind penetration testing and the Integrated Puncture Score method to measurements of stalk bending strength. When evaluating the diverse set of hybrids, both methods were good predictors of stalk bending strength (R2 values of 0.67). However, when evaluating elite hybrids, the Integrated Puncture Score had an R2 value of 0.74 whereas the traditional method had an R2 value of 0.48. Additionally, the Integrated Puncture Score was able to differentiate between the strongest and weakest hybrids in the elite hybrid data set whereas the traditional rind penetration method was not. Additional experiments revealed strong evidence in favor of the data aggregation steps utilized to compute the Integrated Puncture Score. CONCLUSIONS This study presents a new method for evaluating rind penetration resistance that highly correlates with stalk bending strength and can possibly be used as a breeding index for assessing stalk lodging resistance. This research lays the foundation required to develop a field-based high-throughput phenotyping device for stalk lodging resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher McMahan
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Will Seegmiller
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844 USA
| | - Douglas D. Cook
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 USA
| | - Daniel J. Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844 USA
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Erndwein L, Cook DD, Robertson DJ, Sparks EE. Field-based mechanical phenotyping of cereal crops to assess lodging resistance. APPLICATIONS IN PLANT SCIENCES 2020; 8:e11382. [PMID: 32995102 PMCID: PMC7507486 DOI: 10.1002/aps3.11382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant mechanical failure, also known as lodging, is the cause of significant and unpredictable yield losses in cereal crops. Lodging occurs in two distinct failure modes-stalk lodging and root lodging. Despite the prevalence and detrimental impact of lodging on crop yields, there is little consensus on how to phenotype plants in the field for lodging resistance and thus breed for mechanically resilient plants. This review provides an overview of field-based mechanical testing approaches to assess stalk and root lodging resistance. These approaches are placed in the context of future perspectives. Best practices and recommendations for acquiring field-based mechanical phenotypes of plants are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Erndwein
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences and the Delaware Biotechnology Institute University of Delaware Newark Delaware 19711 USA
| | - Douglas D Cook
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Brigham Young University Provo Utah 84602 USA
| | - Daniel J Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Idaho Moscow Idaho 83844 USA
| | - Erin E Sparks
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences and the Delaware Biotechnology Institute University of Delaware Newark Delaware 19711 USA
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12
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Abstract
Tensile testing is widely used to evaluate the mechanical properties of biological materials including soft primary plant tissues. Commercially available platforms for tensile testing are often expensive and limited in customizability. In this chapter, we provide a guide for the assembly and use of a simple and low-cost micromechanical testing apparatus suitable for research and educational purposes. The build of the setup is presented with scalability and universality in mind and is based on a do-it-yourself mind frame towards mechanical tests on plant organs and tissues. We discuss hardware and software requirements with practical details on required components, device calibration and a script to run the device. Further, we provide an example in which the device was used for the uniaxial tensile test of onion epidermis.
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13
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Stubbs CJ, Seegmiller K, McMahan C, Sekhon RS, Robertson DJ. Diverse maize hybrids are structurally inefficient at resisting wind induced bending forces that cause stalk lodging. PLANT METHODS 2020; 16:67. [PMID: 32426024 PMCID: PMC7216590 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-020-00608-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stalk lodging (breaking of agricultural plant stalks prior to harvest) results in millions of dollars in lost revenue each year. Despite a growing body of literature on the topic of stalk lodging, the structural efficiency of maize stalks has not been investigated previously. In this study, we investigate the morphology of mature maize stalks to determine if rind tissues, which are the major load bearing component of corn stalks, are efficiently organized to withstand wind induced bending stresses that cause stalk lodging. RESULTS 945 fully mature, dried commercial hybrid maize stem specimens (48 hybrids, ~ 2 replicates, ~ 10 samples per plot) were subjected to: (1) three-point-bending tests to measure their bending strength and (2) rind penetration tests to measure the cross-sectional morphology at each internode. The data were analyzed through an engineering optimization algorithm to determine the structural efficiency of the specimens. CONCLUSIONS Hybrids with higher average bending strengths were found to allocate rind tissue more efficiently than weaker hybrids. However, even strong hybrids were structurally suboptimal. There remains significant room for improving the structural efficiency of maize stalks. Results also indicated that stalks are morphologically organized to resist wind loading that occurs primarily above the ear. Results are applicable to selective breeding and crop management studies seeking to reduce stalk lodging rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Stubbs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Dr. MS0902, Moscow, ID 83844 USA
| | - Kate Seegmiller
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Dr. MS0902, Moscow, ID 83844 USA
| | - Christopher McMahan
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Rajandeep S. Sekhon
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Biosystems Research Complex, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Daniel J. Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Dr. MS0902, Moscow, ID 83844 USA
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14
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Blösch R, Plaza-Wüthrich S, Barbier de Reuille P, Weichert A, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Cannarozzi G, Robinson S, Tadele Z. Panicle Angle is an Important Factor in Tef Lodging Tolerance. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:61. [PMID: 32117397 PMCID: PMC7031273 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] is an important crop in the Horn of Africa, particularly in Ethiopia, where it is a staple food for over 60 million people. However, the productivity of tef remains extremely low in part due to its susceptibility to lodging. Lodging is the displacement of the plant from the upright position, and it is exacerbated by rain, wind and the application of fertilizer. In order to address the issue of global food security, especially in the Horn of Africa, greater insight into the causes of tef lodging is needed. In this study, we combine modeling and biomechanical measurements to compare the properties relating to lodging tolerance in high yielding, improved tef genotypes, and lower yielding natural landraces. Our results indicate that the angle of the panicle contributes to the likelihood of lodging in tef. Varieties with compact panicles and reduced height had increased lodging resistance compared to the other varieties. By comparing different varieties, we found that overall, the landraces of tef lodged less than improved varieties. We constructed a model of stem bending and found that panicle angle was an important determinant of the amount of lodging. The findings from this study provide key information to those involved in tef improvement, especially those interested in lodging tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regula Blösch
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Annett Weichert
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Lise Routier-Kierzkowska
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, University of Montreal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Gina Cannarozzi
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sarah Robinson
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Zerihun Tadele
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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15
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Brabham C, Singh A, Stork J, Rong Y, Kumar I, Kikuchi K, Yingling YG, Brutnell TP, Rose JKC, Debolt S. Biochemical and physiological flexibility accompanies reduced cellulose biosynthesis in Brachypodium cesa1 S830N. AOB PLANTS 2019; 11:plz041. [PMID: 31636881 PMCID: PMC6795283 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plz041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Here, we present a study into the mechanisms of primary cell wall cellulose formation in grasses, using the model cereal grass Brachypodium distachyon. The exon found adjacent to the BdCESA1 glycosyltransferase QXXRW motif was targeted using Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes (TILLING) and sequencing candidate amplicons in multiple parallel reactions (SCAMPRing) leading to the identification of the Bdcesa1 S830N allele. Plants carrying this missense mutation exhibited a significant reduction in crystalline cellulose content in tissues that rely on the primary cell wall for biomechanical support. However, Bdcesa1 S830N plants failed to exhibit the predicted reduction in plant height. In a mechanism unavailable to eudicotyledons, B. distachyon plants homozygous for the Bdcesa1 S830N allele appear to overcome the loss of internode expansion anatomically by increasing the number of nodes along the stem. Stem biomechanics were resultantly compromised in Bdcesa1 S830N . The Bdcesa1 S830N missense mutation did not interfere with BdCESA1 gene expression. However, molecular dynamic simulations of the CELLULOSE SYNTHASE A (CESA) structure with modelled membrane interactions illustrated that Bdcesa1 S830N exhibited structural changes in the translated gene product responsible for reduced cellulose biosynthesis. Molecular dynamic simulations showed that substituting S830N resulted in a stabilizing shift in the flexibility of the class specific region arm of the core catalytic domain of CESA, revealing the importance of this motion to protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad Brabham
- Department of Horticulture, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Abhishek Singh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Jozsef Stork
- Department of Horticulture, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Ying Rong
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO, USA
- KWS Gateway Research Center, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Indrajit Kumar
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kazuhiro Kikuchi
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Syngenta Japan K.K., Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yaroslava G Yingling
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | | | - Jocelyn K C Rose
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Seth Debolt
- Department of Horticulture, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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16
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Nogueira FM, Palombini FL, Kuhn SA, Oliveira BF, Mariath JEA. Heat transfer in the tank-inflorescence of Nidularium innocentii (Bromeliaceae): Experimental and finite element analysis based on X-ray microtomography. Micron 2019; 124:102714. [PMID: 31336336 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2019.102714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In Bromeliaceae, various traits have evolved for the uptake and storage of water; however, their roles in bromeliad inflorescences remain unresolved. This study investigates the role of water in the flowers and inflorescences of Nidularium innocentii, and describes water as a protection mechanism. Individuals were divided into groups with and without water provision in inflorescences. Both groups were maintained with water in soil and leaves under the same environmental conditions. During anthesis, individuals were collected, and inflorescences were measured. Another specimen was prepared and scanned using X-ray microtomography (μCT), generating a high-resolution 3D model that was converted into a discretized geometry. Heat transfer finite element analysis (FEA) of the μCT-based geometry was then performed to simulate external temperature dissipation with the presence and absence of water in 3D. Flower size in the control group was significantly larger, and many injuries were observed in the drought group. FEA data indicated that the water environment led to lower temperature variation when compared to the air environment by significantly alleviating thermal amplitude. Water acted as a temperature stabilizer for the inflorescence, while its absence initiated physiological stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda M Nogueira
- Laboratory of Plant Anatomy (LAVeg), Institute of Biosciences, Department of Botany, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program in Botany, Institute of Biosciences, Department of Botany, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Felipe L Palombini
- Graduate Program in Design - PGDesign, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Osvaldo Aranha 99/607, 90035-190, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Sofia A Kuhn
- Farroupilha Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology, (IFFar) - RS 527, Julio de Castilhos, RS, Brazil
| | - Branca F Oliveira
- Graduate Program in Design - PGDesign, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Osvaldo Aranha 99/607, 90035-190, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Virtual Design Research Group - ViD, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Av. Osvaldo Aranha 99/408, 90033-190, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Jorge E A Mariath
- Laboratory of Plant Anatomy (LAVeg), Institute of Biosciences, Department of Botany, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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17
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Stubbs CJ, Cook DD, Niklas KJ. A general review of the biomechanics of root anchorage. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:3439-3451. [PMID: 30698795 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ery451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
With few exceptions, terrestrial plants are anchored to substrates by roots that experience bending and twisting forces resulting from gravity- and wind-induced forces. Mechanical failure occurs when these forces exceed the flexural or torsional tolerance limits of stems or roots, or when roots are dislodged from their substrate. The emphasis of this review is on the general principles of anchorage, how the mechanical failure of root anchorage can be averted, and recommendations for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Douglas D Cook
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Karl J Niklas
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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18
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Ethephon Improved Stalk Strength of Maize (Zea Mays L.) Mainly through Altering Internode Morphological Traits to Modulate Mechanical Properties under Field Conditions. AGRONOMY-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/agronomy9040186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Stalk strength is critical for reducing maize stalk lodging and maintaining grain yield. Ethephon has been widely applied to molding compact plant-type to reduce the lodging risk in maize production. However, there is little information on how ethephon regulates internode mechanical properties to improve maize stalk strength. Multiyear field experiments (2013–2017) were conducted to determine the effects of foliar-applied ethephon on summer maize internode morphological, chemical and mechanical characteristics. The hypothetical structural equation model was used to analyze the contribution of ethephon-induced changes of internode morphological and chemical traits to stalk mechanical strength. Ethephon significantly reduced the basal internode length, while increasing internode diameters and breaking resistance. Meanwhile, ethephon significantly increased the ratio of structural dry matter to total dry matter and the amount of structural dry matter per unit length and volume. Mechanical assays suggested that ethephon significantly altered geometric properties and increased the maximum bending moment, maximum failure force, while depressing the material properties. Furthermore, correlation and path analyses revealed strong correlations and significant contribution of internode morphological properties to stalk mechanical strength, respectively. These results support the conclusion that ethephon-induced morphology alteration played a major role in improving maize internode strength.
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19
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Zhang Y, Du J, Wang J, Ma L, Lu X, Pan X, Guo X, Zhao C. High-throughput micro-phenotyping measurements applied to assess stalk lodging in maize (Zea mays L.). Biol Res 2018; 51:40. [PMID: 30368254 PMCID: PMC6203980 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-018-0190-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The biomechanical properties of maize stalks largely determine their lodging resistance, which affects crop yield per unit area. However, the quantitative and qualitative relationship between micro-phenotypes and the biomechanics of maize stalks is still under examined. In particular, the roles of the number, geometry, and distribution of vascular bundles of stalks in maize lodging resistance remain unclear. Research on these biomechanical properties will benefit from high-resolution micro-phenotypic image acquisition capabilities, which have been improved by modern X-ray imaging devices such as micro-CT and the development of micro-phenotyping analysis software. Hence, high-throughput image analysis and accurate quantification of anatomical phenotypes of stalks are necessary. RESULTS We have updated VesselParser version 1.0 to version 2.0 and have improved its performance, accuracy, and computation strategies. Anatomical characteristics of the second and third stalk internodes of the cultivars 'Jingke968' and 'Jingdan38' were analyzed using VesselParser 2.0. The relationships between lodging resistance and anatomical phenotypes of stalks between the two different maize varieties were investigated. The total area of vascular bundles in the peripheral layer, auxiliary axis diameter, and total area of vascular bundles were revealed to have the highest correlation with mechanical properties, and anatomical phenotypes of maize stalk were better predictors of mechanical properties than macro features observed optically from direct measurement, such as diameter and perimeter. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the utility of VesselParser 2.0 in assessing stalk mechanical properties. The combination of anatomical phenotypes and mechanical behavior research provides unique insights into the problem of stalk lodging, showing that micro phenotypes of vascular bundles are good predictors of maize stalk mechanical properties that may be important indices for the evaluation and identification of the biomechanical properties to improve lodging resistance of future maize varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianjun Du
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jinglu Wang
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Liming Ma
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xianju Lu
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaodi Pan
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinyu Guo
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
| | - Chunjiang Zhao
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, No. 11, Beijing, 100097 People’s Republic of China
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20
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Gomez FE, Carvalho G, Shi F, Muliana AH, Rooney WL. High throughput phenotyping of morpho-anatomical stem properties using X-ray computed tomography in sorghum. PLANT METHODS 2018; 14:59. [PMID: 30008795 PMCID: PMC6043981 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-018-0326-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In bioenergy/forage sorghum, morpho-anatomical stem properties are major components affecting standability and juice yield. However, phenotyping these traits is low-throughput, and has been restricted by the lack of a high-throughput phenotyping platforms that can collect both morphological and anatomical stem properties. X-ray computed tomography (CT) offers a potential solution, but studies using this technology in plants have evaluated limited numbers of genotypes with limited throughput. Here we suggest that using a medical CT might overcome sample size limitations when higher resolution is not needed. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a practical high-throughput phenotyping and image data processing pipeline that extracts stem morpho-anatomical traits faster, more efficiently and on a larger number of samples. RESULTS A medical CT was used to image morpho-anatomical stem properties in sorghum. The platform and image analysis pipeline revealed extensive phenotypic variation for important morpho-anatomical traits in well-characterized sorghum genotypes at suitable repeatability rates. CT estimates were highly predictive of morphological traits and moderately predictive of anatomical traits. The image analysis pipeline also identified genotypes with superior morpho-anatomical traits that were consistent with ground-truth based classification in previous studies. In addition, stem cross section intensity measured by the CT was highly correlated with stem dry-weight density, and can potentially serve as a high-throughput approach to measure stem density in grass stems. CONCLUSIONS The use of CT on a diverse set of sorghum genotypes with a defined platform and image analysis pipeline was effective at predicting traits such as stem length, diameter, and pithiness ratio at the internode level. High-throughput phenotyping of stem traits using CT appears to be useful and feasible for use in an applied breeding program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco E. Gomez
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Geraldo Carvalho
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Fuhao Shi
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, 3112 TAMU, 710 Ross St, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Anastasia H. Muliana
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A& M University, 401 Joe Routt Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - William L. Rooney
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
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21
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Wen W, Li B, Li BJ, Guo X. A Leaf Modeling and Multi-Scale Remeshing Method for Visual Computation via Hierarchical Parametric Vein and Margin Representation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:783. [PMID: 29997632 PMCID: PMC6029520 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This paper introduces a novel hierarchical structured representation for leaf modeling and proposes a corresponding multi-resolution remeshing method for large-scale visual computation. Leaf modeling is a very difficult and challenging problem due to the wide variations in the shape and structures among different species of plants. Firstly, we introduce a Hierarchical Parametric Veins and Margin (HPVM) representation approach, which describes the leaf biological structures and exact geometry via interpolation of parametric curves from the extracted vein features from non-manifold data. Secondly, a parametric surface model is constructed using HPVM with geometric and structured constraints. Finally, for a given size, we adapt a multi-step discrete point resampling strategy and a CDT-based (Constrained Delaunay Triangulation) meshing method to generate a mesh model. Our representation consists of three coupled data structures, a core hierarchical parametric data structure of veins and margin for the leaf skeleton, the corresponding parametric surface model, and a set of unstructured triangular meshes with user-specified density for the leaf membrane. Numerical experiments show that our method can obtain high quality meshes from the scanned non-manifold mesh data with well-preserved biological structures and geometry. This novel approach is suitable for effective leaf simulation, rendering, texture mapping, and simulation of light distribution in crop canopies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiliang Wen
- Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Baojun Li
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, School of Automotive Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Bao-jun Li
- Faculty of Vehicle Engineering and Mechanics, School of Automotive Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Xinyu Guo
- Beijing Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Lab of Digital Plant, National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
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22
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Zhang Y, Liu P, Zhang X, Zheng Q, Chen M, Ge F, Li Z, Sun W, Guan Z, Liang T, Zheng Y, Tan X, Zou C, Peng H, Pan G, Shen Y. Multi-Locus Genome-Wide Association Study Reveals the Genetic Architecture of Stalk Lodging Resistance-Related Traits in Maize. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:611. [PMID: 29868068 PMCID: PMC5949362 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Stalk lodging resistance, which is mainly measured by stem diameter (SD), stalk bending strength (SBS), and rind penetrometer resistance (RPR) in maize, seriously affects the yield and quality of maize (Zea mays L.). To dissect its genetic architecture, in this study multi-locus genome-wide association studies for stalk lodging resistance-related traits were conducted in a population of 257 inbred lines, with tropical, subtropical, and temperate backgrounds, genotyped with 48,193 high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms. The analyses of phenotypic variations for the above traits in three environments showed high broad-sense heritability (0.679, 0.720, and 0.854, respectively). In total, 423 significant Quantitative Trait Nucleotides (QTNs) were identified by mrMLM, FASTmrEMMA, ISIS EM-BLASSO, and pLARmEB methods to be associated with the above traits. Among these QTNs, 29, 34, and 48 were commonly detected by multiple methods or across multiple environments to be related to SD, SBS, and RPR, respectively. The superior allele analyses in 30 elite lines showed that only eight lines contained more than 50% of the superior alleles, indicating that stalk lodging resistance can be improved by the integration of more superior alleles. Among sixty-three candidate genes of the consistently expressed QTNs, GRMZM5G856734 and GRMZM2G116885, encoding membrane steroid-binding protein 1 and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1, respectively, possibly inhibit cell elongation and division, which regulates lodging resistance. Our results provide the further understanding of the genetic foundation of maize lodging resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanling Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoxiang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qi Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Min Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Fei Ge
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhaoling Li
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wenting Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhongrong Guan
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Research Center of Tumofous Stem Mustard, Chongqing Yudongnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Tianhu Liang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yan Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaolong Tan
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chaoying Zou
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Huanwei Peng
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Guangtang Pan
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yaou Shen
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Maize in Southwest Region, Maize Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
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23
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Al-Zube L, Sun W, Robertson D, Cook D. The elastic modulus for maize stems. PLANT METHODS 2018; 14:11. [PMID: 29449871 PMCID: PMC5806466 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-018-0279-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stalk lodging is a serious challenge in the production of maize and sorghum. A comprehensive understanding of lodging will likely require accurate characterizations of the mechanical properties of such plants. One of the most important mechanical properties for structural analysis of bending is the modulus of elasticity. The purpose of this study was to measure the modulus of elasticity of dry, mature maize rind tissues using three different loading modes (bending, compression and tensile), and to determine the accuracy and reliability of each test method. RESULTS The three testing modes produced comparable elastic modulus values. For the sample in this study, modulus values ranged between 6 and 16 GPa. All three testing modes exhibited relatively favorable repeatability (i.e. test-to-test variation of < 5%). Modulus values of internodal specimens were significantly higher than specimens consisting of both nodal and internodal tissues, indicating spatial variation in the modulus of elasticity between the nodal and internodal regions. CONCLUSIONS Bending tests were found to be the least labor intensive method and also demonstrated the best test-to-test repeatability. This test provides a single aggregate stiffness value for an entire stalk. Compression tests were able to determine more localized (i.e., spatially dependent) modulus of elasticity values, but required additional sample preparation and test time. Finally, tensile tests provided the most focused measurements of the modulus of elasticity, but required the longest sample preparation time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loay Al-Zube
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Faculty of Engineering, The Hashemite University, P.O. Box 330127, Zarqa, Jordan
| | - Wenhuan Sun
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Daniel Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 0902, Moscow, ID 83844-0902 USA
| | - Douglas Cook
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, 435 Crabtree Building, Provo, UT 84602 USA
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24
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Gomez FE, Carvalho G, Shi F, Muliana AH, Rooney WL. High throughput phenotyping of morpho-anatomical stem properties using X-ray computed tomography in sorghum. PLANT METHODS 2018. [PMID: 30008795 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-018-0326-323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In bioenergy/forage sorghum, morpho-anatomical stem properties are major components affecting standability and juice yield. However, phenotyping these traits is low-throughput, and has been restricted by the lack of a high-throughput phenotyping platforms that can collect both morphological and anatomical stem properties. X-ray computed tomography (CT) offers a potential solution, but studies using this technology in plants have evaluated limited numbers of genotypes with limited throughput. Here we suggest that using a medical CT might overcome sample size limitations when higher resolution is not needed. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a practical high-throughput phenotyping and image data processing pipeline that extracts stem morpho-anatomical traits faster, more efficiently and on a larger number of samples. RESULTS A medical CT was used to image morpho-anatomical stem properties in sorghum. The platform and image analysis pipeline revealed extensive phenotypic variation for important morpho-anatomical traits in well-characterized sorghum genotypes at suitable repeatability rates. CT estimates were highly predictive of morphological traits and moderately predictive of anatomical traits. The image analysis pipeline also identified genotypes with superior morpho-anatomical traits that were consistent with ground-truth based classification in previous studies. In addition, stem cross section intensity measured by the CT was highly correlated with stem dry-weight density, and can potentially serve as a high-throughput approach to measure stem density in grass stems. CONCLUSIONS The use of CT on a diverse set of sorghum genotypes with a defined platform and image analysis pipeline was effective at predicting traits such as stem length, diameter, and pithiness ratio at the internode level. High-throughput phenotyping of stem traits using CT appears to be useful and feasible for use in an applied breeding program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco E Gomez
- 1Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA
- 2Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Geraldo Carvalho
- 2Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Fuhao Shi
- 3Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, 3112 TAMU, 710 Ross St, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Anastasia H Muliana
- 4Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A& M University, 401 Joe Routt Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - William L Rooney
- 2Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, 370 Olsen Blvd, College Station, TX 77843 USA
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Al-Zube LA, Robertson DJ, Edwards JN, Sun W, Cook DD. Measuring the compressive modulus of elasticity of pith-filled plant stems. PLANT METHODS 2017; 13:99. [PMID: 29151845 PMCID: PMC5680773 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-017-0250-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The compressional modulus of elasticity is an important mechanical property for understanding stalk lodging, but this property is rarely available for thin-walled plant stems such as maize and sorghum because excised tissue samples from these plants are highly susceptible to buckling. The purpose of this study was to develop a testing protocol that provides accurate and reliable measurements of the compressive modulus of elasticity of the rind of pith-filled plant stems. The general approach was to relying upon standard methods and practices as much as possible, while developing new techniques as necessary. RESULTS Two methods were developed for measuring the compressional modulus of elasticity of pith-filled node-node specimens. Both methods had an average repeatability of ± 4%. The use of natural plant morphology and architecture was used to avoid buckling failure. Both methods relied up on spherical compression platens to accommodate inaccuracies in sample preparation. The effect of sample position within the test fixture was quantified to ensure that sample placement did not introduce systematic errors. CONCLUSIONS Reliable measurements of the compressive modulus of elasticity of pith-filled plant stems can be performed using the testing protocols presented in this study. Recommendations for future studies were also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loay A. Al-Zube
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Faculty of Engineering, The Hashemite University, P.O. Box 330127, Zarqa, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
| | - Daniel J. Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 0902, Moscow, Idaho 83844-0902 USA
| | - Jean N. Edwards
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Wenhuan Sun
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Douglas D. Cook
- Division of Engineering, New York University-Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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