Characterisation of cauliflower mosaic virus DNA sequences which encode major polyadenylated transcripts

Characterization of a strong constitutive promoter from paper mulberry vein banding virus

Paper mulberry vein banding virus (PMVBV), a member of the genus Badnavirus in the family Caulimoviridae, infects paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), a dicotyledonous plant. Putative promoter regions in the PMVBV genome were tested using recombinant plant expression vectors, revealing that the promoter activity of three genome fragments was about 1.5-fold higher than that of the 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus in Nicotiana benthamiana. In transformed transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants, these promoter constructs showed constitutive expression. Based on the activity and gene expression patterns of these three promoter constructs, a fragment of 384 bp (named PmVP) was deduced to contain the full-length promoter of the PMVBV genome. The results suggest that the PMVBV-derived promoter can be used for the constitutive expression of transgenes in dicotyledonous plants.

Expression of grape ACS1 in tomato decreases ethylene and alters the balance between auxin and ethylene during shoot and root formation

Ethylene plays an important role in the grape rachis, where its production can be 10 times higher than in the berry. VvACS1 is the only rachis-specific ACC synthase (ACS) gene, and its expression is coincident with ethylene production in the rachis of Vitis vinifera 'Thompson seedless'. VvACS1 was cloned and ectopically expressed in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum 'Moneymaker'). Lateral buds were increased in two- or four-week-old 35s∷VvACS1 transgenic tomato plants after transplanting. Compared with wild-type (WT) plants, the transgenic tomato plants showed higher expression of the VvACS1 gene in the flowers, leaves, rachis, and fruits. There was no obvious difference of ACS activity in the fruit of tomato, and only increased ACS activity in the rachis of tomato. Ethylene production was decreased in flowers, leaves, and fruits (seven weeks after full bloom), while the relative expression of endogenous tomato ACS1 and ACS6 genes was not down-regulated by the ectopic expression of VvACS1. These results imply that post-transcriptional or post-translational regulation of ACS may occur, resulting in lower ethylene production in the transgenic tomato plants. Moreover, expression of VvACS1 in tomato resulted in decreased auxin and increased zeatin contents in the lateral buds, as well as reduced or delayed formation of adventitious roots in lateral bud cuttings. RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR analyses of rooted lateral bud cuttings indicated that the relative expression levels of the genes for zeatin O-glucosyltransferase-like, auxin repressed/dormancy-associated protein, and ERF transcription factors were higher in transgenic tomatoes than in WT, suggesting that ethylene may regulate auxin transport and distribution in shoots and that adventitious root formation employs coordination between auxin and ethylene.

Characterization and comparative analysis of promoters from three plant pararetroviruses associated with Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis)

Two distinct caulimoviruses, Dahlia mosaic virus (DMV) and Dahlia common mosaic virus (DCMV), and an endogenous plant pararetroviral sequence (DvEPRS, formerly known as DMV-D10) were reported from dahlia (Dahlia spp). Promoter elements from these dahlia-associated pararetroviruses were identified and characterized. The TATA box, the CAAT box, the transcription start site, the polyadenylation signal, and regulation factors, characteristic of caulimovirus promoters, were present in each of these promoter regions. Each of the promoter regions was separately cloned into a binary vector containing β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene and delivered into Agrobacterium tumefaciens by electroporation followed by agroinfiltration into Nicotiana benthamiana. The activity of the 35S promoter homologs was determined by transient expression of the GUS gene both in qualitative and quantitative assays. The length of the promoter regions in DMV, DCMV, and DvEPRS corresponded to 438, 439, and 259 bp, respectively. Quantitative GUS assays showed that the promoters from DMV and DCMV resulted in higher levels of gene expression compared to that of DvEPRS in N. benthamiana leaf tissue. Significant differences were observed among the three promoters (p < 0.001). Qualitative GUS assays were consistent with quantitative GUS results. This study provides important information on new promoters for prospect applications as novel promoters for their potential use in foreign gene expression in plants.

Expression of an alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) ethylene response factor gene MsERF8 in tobacco plants enhances resistance to salinity

Ethylene response factors (ERF) play crucial roles in plant development and response to stresses. Here, a novel cDNA fragment (MsERF8) encoding an ERF protein with an AP2 domain was isolated and characterized from alfalfa. The MsERF8 cDNA has an open reading frame of 603 bp and encodes a nuclear protein of 201 amino acids. Q-RT-PCR analysis revealed that MsERF8 was strongly enriched in roots and leaves compared with stems, flower buds and flowers of mature alfalfa plants. Bioinformatic analysis of the MsERF8 promoter indicated a number of elements associated with stress-related responses, and MsERF8 transcripts in alfalfa seedlings were induced by NaCl, PEG6000, Al(2)(SO(4))(3) and five different hormones. Expression of MsERF8 in transgenic tobacco plants resulted in higher tolerance to salinity than with non-transgenic plants. This data shows that MsERF8 is a gene which prevents or alleviates salinity damage and has strong potential to impart salt tolerance to other crop plants.

Molecular cloning and characterization of an achene-seed-specific promoter from motherwort (Leonurus japonicus Houtt)

LJAMP1 is a small antimicrobial protein purified previously from the seeds of motherwort, and it is expressed preferentially in seeds. A 794-bp upstream sequence of the ATG start codon was isolated using a genome walking method and cloned into the upstream of the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene to determine the GUS tissue-specific expression pattern. The transgenic tobacco showed that pLJAMP1 promoter derived GUS reporter gene special expression in pollen, achene and seed. The analysis of cis-acting elements also revealed pLJAMP1 promoter contained pollen and seed related transcriptional control elements.

Detection in vivo of a new gene product (gene III) of cauliflower mosaic virus

Cauliflower mosaic virus DNA contains six major open reading frames (ORFs). As only the mRNA corresponding to the transcription of gene VI and its translation product have been isolated, the identification in infected plants of products corresponding to the five other putative genes remains to be established. The present paper reports the detection of an ORF III product by means of antibodies raised against an NH(2)-terminal synthetic peptide of 19 amino acids corresponding to a sequence predicted from the nucleotide sequence of ORF III. The detection of this gene product raises the question of the mechanism of its expression.

Acute but not chronic exposure to abiotic stress results in transient reduction of expression levels of the transgene driven by the 35S promoter

The transgenic plant performance depends on the stable expression of the integrated transgene. In this paper, we have analyzed the stability of the most frequently used constitutive promoter, the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter. We used several independent Nicotiana tabacum lines transgenic for the luciferase (LUC) or green fluorescence protein (GFP) coding genes driven by the same 35S promoter. As an indication of the expression level, we measured the steady state RNA level, protein level and protein activity. Exposure of plants to an acute single dose of UVC, UVB or X-ray radiation resulted in a decrease of the transgene expression level, whereas exposure to high temperature increased it. In most of the cases, the expression changed at one to two hours post exposure and returned to normal at four hours. By contrast, plants germinated and grown in the presence of a low dose of either UVB radiation or CuSO(4) for two weeks did not show any changes in expression level. We conclude that although the expression level of the transgenes driven by the 35S promoter can be transiently altered by the acute exposure, no substantial changes occur upon constant low exposure.

Strategies to mitigate transgene-promoter interactions

The expression pattern of tissue-specific promoters in transgenes can be influenced by promoter/enhancer elements employed for the expression of selectable marker genes or elements found in DNA flanking the insertion site. We have developed an analytical system in Arabidopsis thaliana to investigate strategies useful in blocking or reducing nonspecific interactions. These experiments confirm that the DNA configuration and the insertion of spacer DNA aid in the appropriate expression of tissue-specific promoters. It is also demonstrated that the novel tobacco cryptic promoter (tCUP), when used to replace the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter/enhancer, does not show nonspecific interactions. Furthermore, it is shown that insulators isolated from yeast and animals may have potential application in plants. Our results may allow the design of strategies that, individually or in combination, can be used to minimize nonspecific interactions and to design vectors for individual tissue-specific promoters.

Forward and reverse genetics of rapid-cycling Brassica oleracea

Seeds of rapid-cycling Brassica oleracea were mutagenized with the chemical mutagen, ethylmethane sulfonate. The reverse genetics technique, TILLING, was used on a sample population of 1,000 plants, to determine the mutation profile. The spectrum and frequency of mutations induced by ethylmethane sulfonate was similar to that seen in other diploid species such as Arabidopsis thaliana. These data indicate that the mutagenesis was effective and demonstrate that TILLING represents an efficient reverse genetic technique in B. oleracea that will become more valuable as increasing genomic sequence data become available for this species. The extensive duplication in the B. oleracea genome is believed to result in the genetic redundancy that has been important for the evolution of morphological diversity seen in today's B. oleracea crops (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, kale and kohlrabi). However, our forward genetic screens identified 120 mutants in which some aspect of development was affected. Some of these lines have been characterized genetically and in the majority of these, the mutant trait segregates as a recessive allele affecting a single locus. One dominant mutation (curly leaves) and one semi-dominant mutation (dwarf-like) were also identified. Allelism tests of two groups of mutants (glossy and dwarf) revealed that for some loci, multiple independent alleles have been identified. These data indicate that, despite genetic redundancy, mutation of many individual loci in B. oleracea results in distinct phenotypes.

Construction of infectious clones of double-stranded DNA viruses of plants using citrus yellow mosaic virus as an example

Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses of plants are believed to be plant pararetroviruses. Their genome is replicated by reverse transcription of a larger than unit-length terminally redundant RNA transcript of the viral genomic DNA using the virus-encoded replicase. In order to produce a cloned, infectious viral genome, the clone must be constructed in a binary vector and be longer than the full, unit-length viral genome. The clone can then be transferred by Agrobacterium-assisted inoculation into a suitable host plant to induce virus infection.

An improved primer extension method for detection of mRNA start-points using non-radioactive digoxigenin-labeling primers

An improved primer extension method using non-radioactive digoxigenin (DIG)-labeling primers is described which uses a commercially-available DIG-labeling and detection system to perform alternative hybridization-based "labeling" procedure of DNA markers and DIG chemiluminescent detection assay. The time-consuming annealing step and relatively low specificity of conventional protocol are also improved considerably by an application of one-step primer/mRNA annealing procedure and subsequent high-temperature reverse transcription reaction. This new protocol is convenient, simple, cost-effective and safe, and can allow the detection of even low abundance mRNA start-points in enriched poly(A)(+) RNA samples.

Stabilization of cauliflower mosaic virus P3 tetramer by covalent linkage

Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) open reading frame (ORF) III encodes a 15 kDa protein (P3) that is indispensable for viral infectivity. Although P3 has been shown to be a prerequisite for CaMV aphid transmission, its role in viral replication remains unknown. We previously showed that P3 forms a tetramer in planta and that P3 tetramer co-sediments with viral coat protein on sucrose gradient centrifugation, suggesting that a tetramer may be the functional form of P3. We presumed that disulfide bonds were involved in tetramer formation because 1) the tetramer was detected by Western blotting after electrophoresis under non-reducing conditions, and 2) the cysteine-X-cysteine motif is well conserved in CaMV P3 and P3 homologues among Caulimoviruses. Therefore we mutated either or both of the cysteine residues of CaMV P3. The mutant viruses were infectious and accumulated to a similar extent as the wild-type. An analysis of mutant proteins confirmed that the wild-type P3 molecules in the tetramer are covalently bound with one another through disulfide bonds. It was also suggested that mutant proteins are less stable than wild-type protein in planta. Furthermore, sedimentation study suggested that the disulfide bonds are involved in stable association of P3 with CaMV virions or virion-like particles, or both. The mutant viruses could be transmitted by aphids. These results suggested that the covalent bonds in P3 tetramer are dispensable for biological activity of P3 under experimental situations and may have some biological significance in natural infection in the field.

Plants rendered herbicide-susceptible by cauliflower mosaic virus-elicited suppression of a 35S promoter-regulated transgene

Crop plants genetically modified for herbicide tolerance were some of the first to be released into the environment. Frequently, the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter is used to drive expression of the herbicide tolerance transgene. We analyzed the response to CaMV infection of a transgenic oilseed rape line containing the bialaphos tolerance gene (BAR) from Streptomyces hygroscopicus, regulated by the 35S promoter. Oilseed rape is susceptible to CaMV, but plants recover from infection. CaMV infection altered the expression of the herbicide tolerance gene such that plants became susceptible to the herbicide. The effect on transgene expression differed in infections with viral pathogenic variants typical of those found in natural situations worldwide. Susceptibility to the herbicide was most likely a result of transcriptional gene silencing of the transgene. Our results show that transgene phenotypes can be modified by pathogen invasion.

Plant DNA viruses and gene silencing

Gene silencing is a multifaceted phenomenon leading to propagative down-regulation of gene expression. Gene silencing, first observed in plants containing transgenes, can operate both at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Silencing effects can be triggered by nuclear transgenes and by cytoplasmic RNA viruses, and it can be propagated between these elements and endogenous plant genes that share sequence homology. Although some aspects of gene silencing are becoming better understood, little is yet known about the relationship between nuclear and cytoplasmic events. Plant DNA viruses-- both the ssDNA geminiviruses and the reverse-transcribing pararetroviruses-- have properties with the potential to initiate gene silencing in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm. Characteristics include production of multiple copies of viral DNA genomes in the nucleus, illegitimate integration of viral DNA into host chromosomes mimicking transgene transformation, and generation of abundant viral RNAs in the cytoplasm. Evidence is emerging that geminiviruses and plant pararetroviruses can interact with the gene silencing system either from introduced DNA constructs or during viral pathogenesis. Some observations suggest there are complex relationships between DNA viral activity, transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanisms. DNA viruses also have properties consistent with an ability to counteract the plant silencing response. In this article, features of plant DNA viruses are discussed in relation to gene silencing phenomena, and the prospects for understanding the interaction between nuclear and cytoplasmic silencing processes.

Expression of two consecutive genes of a secondary metabolic pathway in transgenic tobacco: molecular diversity influences levels of expression and product accumulation

We have created a population of transgenic tobacco plants carrying cDNAs encoding two consecutive enzymes from early stages in monoterpenoid alkaloid biosynthesis in Catharanthus roseus. The cDNAs, encoding tryptophan decarboxylase (tdc) and strictosidine synthase (str1) together with a selectable marker gene, were introduced on a single transforming plasmid into tobacco leaves by particle bombardment. Analysis of 150 independent transgenic plants at the DNA and RNA levels demonstrated a range of integration events and steady-state transcript levels for the tdc and str1 transgenes. Southern blot analysis indicated that the tdc and str1 transgenes were integrated at least once in all 150 transformants giving a 100% co-integration frequency of the two unselected genes carried on the same plasmid. A comparison of Southern and northern data suggested that in 26% of the plants, both tdc and str1 transgenes were silenced, 41% demonstrated a preferential silencing of either the tdc or the str1 transgene, with the remaining 33% of the plants expressing both transgenes. We observed no clear correlation between the number of integration events of a specific transgene and the levels of accumulated transcript. Twenty plants representing the range of molecular diversity in the transgenic population were selected for further analysis. Seeds were collected from self-fertilised transformants and germinated on medium containing kanamycin. Seedlings were harvested after 7 weeks and TDC and STR1 enzymatic assays were carried out. We observed a 24- and 110-fold variation in levels of TDC and STR1 activities, respectively. Our data correlate molecular diversity with biochemistry and accumulation of end-product and provide a detailed molecular and biochemical characterization of transgenic plants transformed with a single plasmid carrying two genes of secondary metabolism.

Functional characterization of RNase H1 from Drosophila melanogaster

We have cloned and functionally characterized the RNase H1 gene from D. melanogaster. The longest open reading frame consists of 5 exons that encode a 333 amino acid protein with a molecular mass of 37.1 kDa. This is the first demonstration of specific nuclease activity of a cloned RNase gene from a multicellular higher eukaryote. No additional proteins or cofactors are required for this nuclease activity. Comparison of Drosophila RNase H1 amino acid sequence to that of other cellular eukaryotic homologs reveals the presence of three evolutionarily distinct domains. The N- and C-terminal conserved domains are connected by a highly variable domain. The C-terminal domain has high amino acid similarity to bacterial RNase HI and the RNase H domain of retroviral reverse transcriptase, while the N-terminus, of unknown function, is similar to the P6 translational activator of caulimoviruses.

Roles of the 35S promoter and multiple overlapping domains in the pathogenicity of the pararetrovirus cauliflower mosaic virus

Elements associated with the 35S promoter involved in generating the pregenomic RNA (35S RNA) of the pararetrovirus cauliflower mosaic virus have been extensively studied in heterologous systems, but little is known about their role in viral pathogenicity. To investigate these elements, premature termination codons were progressively inserted into the 3' end of the adjacent gene VI to dissect it from colinear 35S enhancer sequences. The ability to cause a systemic infection in plants was retained with loss of up to 40 amino acids from the gene VI polypeptide, but truncations into a putative zinc finger proved lethal. In the 35S promoter, removal of the TATA box also abolished infectivity. However, upstream deletions encompassing the 35S enhancer showed that the sequence between -207 and -56 from the cap site comprised nonessential elements, although complete removal of this fragment caused loss of infectivity even when domain spacing was restored by linker insertion. Two separate enhancer domains (-207 to - 150 and -95 to -56) were identified, of which either one or the other, but not both, was required for infectivity. Some mutations affected the cellular levels of viral RNAs in unexpected ways, as with removal of the as-1 enhancer element causing an increase in 35S RNA. Others altered the relative abundance of nuclear and cytoplasmic viral DNAs. Mutations in promoter domains thought to be involved in regulating tissue-specific expression did not significantly affect virus accumulation in leaves versus roots, whereas gene VI mutants showed reduced root accumulation. We conclude that elements associated with the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter contain extensive nonessential regions that can behave differently in their proper context than as isolated elements.

Different sequence elements are required for function of the cauliflower mosaic virus polyadenylation site in Saccharomyces cerevisiae compared with in plants

We show that the polyadenylation site derived from the plant cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) is specifically functional in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The mRNA 3' endpoints were mapped at the same position in yeast cells as in plants, and the CaMV polyadenylation site was recognized in an orientation-dependent manner. Mutational analysis of the CaMV 3'-end-formation signal revealed that multiple elements are essential for proper activity in yeast cells, including two upstream elements that are situated more than 100 and 43 to 51 nucleotides upstream of the poly(A) addition site and the sequences at or near the poly(A) addition site. A comparison of the sequence elements that are essential for proper function of the CaMV signal in yeast cells and plants showed that both organisms require a distal and a proximal upstream element but that these sequence elements are not identical in yeast cells and plants. The key element for functioning of the CaMV signal in yeast cells is the sequence TAGTATGTA, which is similar to a sequence previously proposed to act in yeast cells as a bipartite signal, namely, TAG ... TATGTA. Deletion of this sequence in the CaMV polyadenylation signal abolished 3'-end formation in yeast cells, and a single point mutation in this motif reduced the activity of the CaMV signal to below 15%. These results indicate that the bipartite sequence element acts as a signal for 3'-end formation in yeast cells but only together with other cis-acting elements.

Different sequence elements are required for function of the cauliflower mosaic virus polyadenylation site in Saccharomyces cerevisiae compared with in plants

We show that the polyadenylation site derived from the plant cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) is specifically functional in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The mRNA 3' endpoints were mapped at the same position in yeast cells as in plants, and the CaMV polyadenylation site was recognized in an orientation-dependent manner. Mutational analysis of the CaMV 3'-end-formation signal revealed that multiple elements are essential for proper activity in yeast cells, including two upstream elements that are situated more than 100 and 43 to 51 nucleotides upstream of the poly(A) addition site and the sequences at or near the poly(A) addition site. A comparison of the sequence elements that are essential for proper function of the CaMV signal in yeast cells and plants showed that both organisms require a distal and a proximal upstream element but that these sequence elements are not identical in yeast cells and plants. The key element for functioning of the CaMV signal in yeast cells is the sequence TAGTATGTA, which is similar to a sequence previously proposed to act in yeast cells as a bipartite signal, namely, TAG ... TATGTA. Deletion of this sequence in the CaMV polyadenylation signal abolished 3'-end formation in yeast cells, and a single point mutation in this motif reduced the activity of the CaMV signal to below 15%. These results indicate that the bipartite sequence element acts as a signal for 3'-end formation in yeast cells but only together with other cis-acting elements.

The full-length transcript of a caulimovirus is a polycistronic mRNA whose genes are trans activated by the product of gene VI

Gene expression of figwort mosaic virus (FMV), a caulimovirus, was investigated by electroporation of Nicotiana edwardsonii cell suspension protoplasts with cloned viral constructs in which a reporter gene was inserted at various positions on the genome. The results showed that the genome of FMV contains two promoters; one is used for the production of a full-length RNA and another initiates synthesis of a separate monocistronic RNA for gene VI. Evidence is provided that the full-length transcript, the probable template for reverse transcription, can serve as a polycistronic mRNA for translation of genes I through V and perhaps also gene VI. Expression of all the genes on the polycistronic mRNA is trans activated by the gene VI protein. Reporter gene expression appears most efficient when its start codon is in close proximity to the stop codon of the preceding gene, as for the native genes of caulimoviruses. We propose that the gene VI product enables expression of the polycistronic mRNA by promoting reinitiation of ribosomes to give translational coupling of individual genes.

A dissection of the cauliflower mosaic virus polyadenylation signal

Mutagenesis analysis of the polyadenylation [poly(A)] signal from the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), a plant pararetrovirus, revealed striking differences to known vertebrate poly(A) signals. Our results show that (1) the AATAAA sequence is necessary for efficient cleavage at the poly(A) site, although the requirement for an authentic AATAAA might be less stringent in plant than in vertebrate cells; (2) surprisingly and in contrast to the majority of vertebrate poly(A) signals, the sequences downstream of the CaMV poly(A) site do not influence processing efficiency drastically although they affect the precision of cleavage; and (3) deletion of sequences upstream of the CaMV AATAAA sequence decreased processing at the CaMV site dramatically, suggesting the presence of one or several positively acting upstream elements. An oligonucleotide consisting of CaMV upstream sequences could induce the recognition of a normally silent exogenous poly(A) signal when inserted upstream of its AATAAA motif.

Osmotic stress and abscisic acid induce expression of the wheat Em genes

The early-methionine-labelled (Em) polypeptide is the single most abundant cytosolic protein of dry wheat embryos. It is encoded by messenger RNA which accumulates during the later (maturation) stages of embryogenesis. The accumulation of Em mRNA can be induced in isolated developing embryos, in culture, by the application of the plant growth regulator, abscisic acid, which prevents precocious germination. Precocious germination is also inhibited by the culture of embryos under conditions of osmotic stress when accumulation of Em mRNA is induced. This induction occurs in the absence of any significant increase in the endogenous levels of embryonic abscisic acid although there is a requirement for the continued presence of the growth regulator. Additionally, expression of Em genes can be repeated during early germination, if imbibing embryos are subjected to osmotic stress. Induction of Em-gene expression by osmotic stress is consistent with the proposed role of the Em polypeptide in mediating the remarkable tolerance of cereal embryos to the programmed desiccation undergone during their maturation.

The pFF plasmids: cassettes utilising CaMV sequences for expression of foreign genes in plants

A plant expression cassette was constructed using the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S 5' regulatory region with the enhancer duplicated and the 35S polyadenylation signal. Insertion of a polylinker between the transcription initiation and polyadenylation sites allows for easy cloning of genes. To test the usefulness of the cassette chimeric bacterial genes were prepared. The constructs were introduced into Nicotiana tabacum suspension culture cells by the particle bombardment process. Expression of the beta-glucuronidase reporter gene was verified by histochemical staining. Stable kanamycin and hygromycin resistant transgenic lines were obtained after introduction of chimeric genes encoding the enzymes neomycin phosphotransferase and hygromycin B phosphotransferase, respectively. The number of stable transformants was approximately 2% of the cells that transiently expressed the beta-glucuronidase reporter gene.

Host regulation of the cauliflower mosaic virus multiplication cycle

The DNA genome of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) replicates in the cytoplasm of infected plant cells by reverse transcription of an RNA template. Viral RNA is generated in the nucleus by transcription of an episomal minichromosome containing supercoiled DNA. We have assessed the relative activities of the nuclear and cytoplasmic phases of the CaMV multiplication cycle by monitoring unencapsidated viral DNA forms and polyadenylylated RNAs in different organs of one host plant and in different host species. Systemically infected leaves of a highly susceptible host, turnip (Brassica rapa), contained abundant 35S RNA and 19S RNA transcripts and unencapsidated reverse transcription products but relatively little supercoiled DNA. In contrast, supercoiled DNA accumulated in roots and other tissues of turnip plants but without significant amounts of steady-state viral RNA. Infected but asymptomatic leaves of a less susceptible CaMV host, kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea), contained supercoiled DNA almost exclusively but negligible viral RNA and DNA products of reverse transcription. An allotetraploid species, rape (Brassica napus), exhibited infection characteristics and minichromosome expression levels intermediate between the other two species from which it was derived. We conclude that expression of the CaMV minichromosome is a key phase of the virus multiplication cycle, which is regulated differentially in organs of a highly susceptible host species. Furthermore, this regulation exhibits genetic variation among different Brassica species and controls host susceptibility to CaMV infection.

In vitro transcription from cauliflower mosaic virus promoters by a cell-free extract from tobacco cells

We have studied transcription from the cauliflower mosaic virus 19S and 35S promoters in a cell-free system derived from tobacco cells in suspension culture. While a whole-cell extract is incapable of detectable transcription from these promoters, successive purification by column chromatography allows the preparation of two fractions which contain all factors necessary for transcription from the 19S promoter. In contrast, transcription from the 35S promoter leads to the accumulation of short RNAs. This accumulation can only be partially alleviated by modifying the conditions of transcription.

Multiple cis regulatory elements for maximal expression of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter in transgenic plants

The 35S promoter is a major promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus that infects crucifers. This promoter is still active when excised from cauliflower mosaic virus and integrated into the nuclear genome of transgenic tobacco. Previous work has shown that the -343 to -46 upstream fragment is responsible for the majority of the 35S promoter strength (Odell, J.T., Nagy, F., and Chua, N.-H. [1985]. Nature 313, 810-812). Here we show by 5', 3', and internal deletions that this upstream fragment can be subdivided into three functional regions, -343 to -208, -208 to -90, and -90 to -46. The first two regions can potentiate transcriptional activity when tested with the appropriate 35S promoter sequence. In contrast, the -90 to -46 region by itself has little activity but it plays an accessory role by increasing transcriptional activity of the two distal regions. Finally, we show that monomers and multimers of a 35S fragment (-209 to -46) can act as enhancers to potentiate transcription from a heterologous promoter.

Cauliflower mosaic virus 35 S RNA leader region inhibits translation of downstream genes

The cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35 S RNA is a full-length transcript of the viral genome. It encodes the genes VII and I-V, arranged in tandem along the RNA, preceded by a long leader region (600 bases) containing many short open reading frames. We have examined the effects of the leader and the first gene (gene VII) on downstream gene I translation in vitro and in an in vivo transient expression system (carrot protoplasts). RNAs from constructs containing the intact leader, and from various deletion constructs, were translated in a rabbit reticulocyte system. Gene I was translated efficiently only when the long leader region and the upstream gene VII were deleted. Translational fusions of gene VII or I to the firefly luciferase reporter gene were also constructed, and a similar series of leader sequence deletion mutants were examined in vivo and in vitro. The 600-base leader region was found to repress translation of gene VII 8- to 30-fold as compared to the truncated gene lacking the leader region. Gene I expression as compared to that of gene VII was reduced an additional 7- to 20-fold by the presence of the upstream leader region including gene VII. This represented an overall reduction in gene I expression of greater than 100-fold as compared to expression in the absence of any leader sequence. The reduced translation of gene I in the context of the 35 S RNA leader region was not due to the action of the gene VII protein product but may result from efficient blocking of scanning 40 S ribosomes by translation of upstream open reading frames.

Detection of a non-structural protein of M r 11 000 encoded by the virion DNA of maize streak virus

A polypeptide of approximately 11 000 daltons (11 kDa protein) encoded by an open reading frame (10.9 ORF) from the virion sense of maize streak virus (MSV) DNA has been detected among the products of in vitro translation reactions programmed with RNA from infected maize plants and also in total protein extracts from infected leaves. The 11 kDa protein has not been detected in virions and is therefore proposed to have a nonstructural role.Viral DNA with an additional in-frame translation stop codon in the 10.9 ORF was not infectious when transmitted to maize plants via Agrobacterium tumefaciens "agroinfection", suggesting that the 10.9 ORF may be essential for virus function. Computer comparison data show that equivalent ORFs in wheat dwarf virus (WDV) and digitaria streak virus (DSV) have some sequences in common with the 10.9 ORF of MSV. Further-more, the absence of similar sequences in geminiviruses which infect dicotyledonous plants suggests that the 11 kDa protein and its putative homologs in WDV and DSV have a function necessary only for those geminiviruses which infect the Gramineae.The significance of the 11 kDa protein in relation to expression of the virion sense DNA of MSV is discussed.

Sequence of figwort mosaic virus DNA (caulimovirus group)

The nucleotide sequence of an infectious clone of figwort mosaic virus (FMV) was determined using the dideoxynucleotide chain termination method. The double-stranded DNA genome (7743 base pairs) contained eight open reading frames (ORFs), seven of which corresponded approximately in size and location to the ORFs found in the genome of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) and carnation etched ring virus (CERV). ORFs I and V of FMV demonstrated the highest degrees of nucleotide and amino acid sequence homology with the equivalent coding regions of CaMV and CERV. Regions II, III and IV showed somewhat less homology with the analogous regions of CaMV and CERV, and ORF VI showed homology with the corresponding gene of CaMV and CERV in only a short segment near the middle of the putative gene product. A 16 nucleotide sequence, complementary to the 3' terminus of methionine initiator tRNA (tRNAimet) and presumed to be the primer binding site for initiation of reverse transcription to produce minus strand DNA, was found in the FMV genome near the discontinuity in the minus strand. Sequences near the three interruptions in the plus strand of FMV DNA bear strong resemblance to similarly located sequences of 3 other caulimoviruses and are inferred to be initiation sites for second strand DNA synthesis. Additional conserved sequences in the small and large intergenic regions are pointed out including a highly conserved 35 bp sequence that occurs in the latter region.

Comparison of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S and nopaline synthase promoters in transgenic plants

We have compared the level of expression of the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter and the nopaline synthase promoter when fused to a common reporter gene. A cassette containing the neomycin phosphotransferase (type II) coding sequence followed by the nopaline synthase 3' nontranslated region was used for transcriptional and translational evaluation of the two different promoters. These chimeric genes were introduced into petunia plants and the copy number of the gene, the steady state level of NPTII transcript and the levels of NPTII enzyme activity were determined. In this paper, we report that the NPT II transcript levels are on the average 30 fold higher in plants containing CaMV 35S promoter and leader sequences than in plants containing the same reporter gene but nopaline synthase promoter and leader sequences. Similarly, plants containing the CaMV 35S promoter had an average of 110 fold higher levels of NPTII enzyme activity than those containing the nopaline synthase promoter. The significance of these results for expression of foreign genes in plants is discussed. In addition, we describe the construction of a convenient plant expression cassette vector (pMON316) which utilizes the CaMV 35S promoter.

Promoter cassettes, antibiotic-resistance genes, and vectors for plant transformation

We have constructed a set of plant transformation vectors, promoter cassettes, and chimeric antibiotic-resistance genes for the transformation and expression of foreign genes in plants sensitive to Agrobacterium infection. The different vectors allow for either concurrent or consecutive selection for kanamycin and hygromycin resistance and have a number of unique restriction sites for the insertion of additional DNA. The promoter cassettes utilize the CaMV 19S and CaMV 35S promoters and are constructed to allow for the easy insertion of foreign genes. The cloned gene can then easily be inserted into the transformation vectors. We have utilized the promoter cassettes to express the hygromycin-resistance gene either from the CaMV 35S or the CaMV 19S promoters, with both chimeric resistance genes allowing for the selection of hygromycin-resistant tobacco plants.

Transient and Stable Expression of the Firefly Luciferase Gene in Plant Cells and Transgenic Plants

The luciferase gene from the firefly, Photinus pyralis, was used as a reporter of gene expression by light production in transfected plant cells and transgenic plants. A complementary DNA clone of the firefly luciferase gene under the control of a plant virus promoter (cauliflower mosaic virus 35S RNA promoter) was introduced into plant protoplast cells (Daucus carota) by electroporation and into plants (Nicotiana tabacum) by use of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens tumor-inducing plasmid. Extracts from electroporated cells (24 hours after the introduction of DNA) and from transgenic plants produce light when mixed with the substrates luciferin and adenosine triphosphate. Light produced by the action of luciferase was also detected in undisrupted leaves or cells in culture from transgenic plants incubated in luciferin and in whole transgenic plants "watered" with luciferin. Although light was detected in most organs in intact, transgenic plants (leaves, stems, and roots), the pattern of luminescence appeared to reflect both the organ-specific distribution of luciferase and the pathway for uptake of luciferin through the vasculature of the plant.

In vivo dimerization of cauliflower mosaic virus DNA can explain recombination

Pairs of heterologous cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) genomes cloned in pBR322, one having a defective genome and both restricted at the same pBR322 cloning site, generate recombinant molecules in infected cells when co-inoculated on plants. Analysis of the restriction pattern of the isolated recombinant CaMV DNAs indicated that the intergenomic recombination may be explained by dimerization of two heterologous CaMV molecules and transcription into a hybrid 35S RNA responsible for replication of the recombinant genomes.

Detection of a subgenomic mRNA for gene V, the putative reverse transcriptase gene of cauliflower mosaic virus

Polypeptides synthesized in vitro in rabbit reticulocyte lysates, directed by poly(A)+ RNA isolated from turnip leaves infected with cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), were analysed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Following translation of virus-specific RNA purified by hybrid-selection using CaMV DNA immobilized on DBM papers, the polypeptides observed included the viral gene VI inclusion body protein P62, and a larger product, P75, together with several smaller polypeptides. By translating RNA hybrid-selected with restriction fragments encompassing the CaMV genome, a mRNA for P75 has been mapped to gene V. These results, together with sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation studies, suggest that a CaMV gene V mRNA is a sub-genomic transcript of approximately 2.5Kb and 22S. The expression strategy of the CaMV genome is discussed in the light of our findings.

Bidirectional transcription of maize streak virus DNA and identification of the coat protein gene

Three RNA transcripts encoded by maize streak virus DNA were detected in polyadenylated RNA from virus-infected maize leaves. Two of the transcripts, a major 0.9 kb and a minor 1.05 kb RNA, were mapped on the virion (+) sense DNA and the other minor transcript of 1.2 kb was mapped on the complementary (-) sense DNA, demonstrating that transcription of MSV DNA was bidirectional. The two virion sense transcripts were 3' coterminal at nucleotide 1114 but had 5' termini at nucleotides 2682 and 163 respectively. Virus-specific polyadenylated RNA translated in vitro to produce a 28,000 MW polypeptide, specifically immunoprecipitable by antiserum raised against whole virus. The mRNA for this protein was mapped by hybrid-arrested translation to the long open reading frame in virion sense DNA whose potential amino acid composition, calculated from nucleotide sequence data, closely agreed with that determined experimentally for the coat protein.

Immunological detection of cauliflower mosaic virus gene V protein produced in engineered bacteria or infected plants

Antiserum was prepared against a synthetic peptide corresponding to the C-terminal 25 amino acids (aa) of the protein encoded by cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) gene V, which is thought to be a reverse transcriptase involved in viral DNA replication. This antiserum was used to detect the expression of CaMV gene V either in Escherichia coli JM103 transformed by an expression vector containing CaMV gene V or in CaMV-infected plants. In both cases, an 80-kDal protein has been detected.

Developmental regulation of gene expression in wheat embryos. Molecular cloning of a DNA sequence encoding the early-methionine-labelled (Em) polypeptide

The early-methionine-labelled (Em) polypeptide is the most abundant single polypeptide found in the cytosolic fraction (30 000 X g supernatant) of dry wheat embryos. Synthesis of this polypeptide is readily detectable during the earliest stages (0-3 h) of wheat embryo germination, by labelling with [35S]methionine. Thereafter, synthesis of the Em polypeptide declines rapidly. A DNA sequence encoding a portion of this polypeptide has been isolated by the molecular cloning of DNA complementary to the messenger RNA from dry wheat embryos. The identity of this cloned sequence has been confirmed by hybrid-selected translation of the Em messenger, the product being analysed by one- and two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and by analysis of its partial proteolytic digestion products. Gel blot hybridisation of RNA isolated from embryos at successive stages of germination with this cloned DNA sequence confirms that the decline in the synthesis of the Em polypeptide, detected by labelling in vivo, is a consequence of the degradation of its corresponding messenger RNA.

Enzymatic properties of plant RNA polymerases : An approach to the study of transcription in plants

Results obtained in the past few years in the study of the reaction mechanism of plant RNA polymerases are reviewed and discussed. They suggest that valuable information can be obtained using a highly simplified transcription system composed of purified plant enzymes and cloned genes. This type of approach may provide a starting point for the development of an in vitro transcription system. The detailed study of the fundamental enzymatic properties of the plant RNA polymerases allows a comparison with the well documented corresponding bacterial enzyme.