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Garbusow M, Ebrahimi C, Riemerschmid C, Daldrup L, Rothkirch M, Chen K, Chen H, Belanger MJ, Hentschel A, Smolka MN, Heinz A, Pilhatsch M, Rapp MA. Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer across Mental Disorders: A Review. Neuropsychobiology 2022; 81:418-437. [PMID: 35843212 DOI: 10.1159/000525579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A mechanism known as Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) describes a phenomenon by which the values of environmental cues acquired through Pavlovian conditioning can motivate instrumental behavior. PIT may be one basic mechanism of action control that can characterize mental disorders on a dimensional level beyond current classification systems. Therefore, we review human PIT studies investigating subclinical and clinical mental syndromes. The literature prevails an inhomogeneous picture concerning PIT. While enhanced PIT effects seem to be present in non-substance-related disorders, overweight people, and most studies with AUD patients, no altered PIT effects were reported in tobacco use disorder and obesity. Regarding AUD and relapsing alcohol-dependent patients, there is mixed evidence of enhanced or no PIT effects. Additionally, there is evidence for aberrant corticostriatal activation and genetic risk, e.g., in association with high-risk alcohol consumption and relapse after alcohol detoxification. In patients with anorexia nervosa, stronger PIT effects elicited by low caloric stimuli were associated with increased disease severity. In patients with depression, enhanced aversive PIT effects and a loss of action-specificity associated with poorer treatment outcomes were reported. Schizophrenic patients showed disrupted specific but intact general PIT effects. Patients with chronic back pain showed reduced PIT effects. We provide possible reasons to understand heterogeneity in PIT effects within and across mental disorders. Further, we strengthen the importance of reliable experimental tasks and provide test-retest data of a PIT task showing moderate to good reliability. Finally, we point toward stress as a possible underlying factor that may explain stronger PIT effects in mental disorders, as there is some evidence that stress per se interacts with the impact of environmental cues on behavior by selectively increasing cue-triggered wanting. To conclude, we discuss the results of the literature review in the light of Research Domain Criteria, suggesting future studies that comprehensively assess PIT across psychopathological dimensions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Garbusow
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Claudia Ebrahimi
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carlotta Riemerschmid
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Luisa Daldrup
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcus Rothkirch
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ke Chen
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Matthew J Belanger
- Department of Psychiatry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Angela Hentschel
- Department of Psychiatry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael N Smolka
- Department of Psychiatry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Andreas Heinz
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maximilan Pilhatsch
- Department of Psychiatry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Elblandklinikum, Radebeul, Germany
| | - Michael A Rapp
- Area of Excellence Cognitive Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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Metts A, Arnaudova I, Staples-Bradley L, Sun M, Zinbarg R, Nusslock R, Wassum KM, Craske MG. Disruption in Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer as a Function of Depression and Anxiety. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10862-021-09941-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Sayão A, Alves H, Furukawa E, Schultz Wenk T, Cagy M, Gutierrez-Arango S, Tripp G, Caparelli-Dáquer E. Development of a Classical Conditioning Task for Humans Examining Phasic Heart Rate Responses to Signaled Appetitive Stimuli: A Pilot Study. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:639372. [PMID: 33867950 PMCID: PMC8052094 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.639372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac responses to appetitive stimuli have been studied as indices of motivational states and attentional processes, the former being associated with cardiac acceleration and latter deceleration. Very few studies have examined heart rate changes in appetitive classical conditioning in humans. The current study describes the development and pilot testing of a classical conditioning task to assess cardiac responses to appetitive stimuli and cues that reliably precede them. Data from 18 adults were examined. They were shown initially neutral visual stimuli (putative CS) on a computer screen followed by pictures of high-caloric food (US). Phasic cardiac deceleration to food images was observed, consistent with an orienting response to motivationally significant stimuli. Similar responses were observed to non-appetitive stimuli when they were preceded by the cue associated with the food images, suggesting that attentional processes were engaged by conditioned stimuli. These autonomic changes provide significant information about classical conditioning effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Sayão
- Lab of Electric Stimulation of the Nervous System Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Heloisa Alves
- Psychology Department, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, MA, United States
| | - Emi Furukawa
- Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Thomas Schultz Wenk
- Lab of Electric Stimulation of the Nervous System Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Cagy
- Alberto Luiz Coimbra Institute for Graduate Studies and Research in Engineering, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Gail Tripp
- Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Egas Caparelli-Dáquer
- Lab of Electric Stimulation of the Nervous System Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Lay BPP, Khoo SYS. Associative processes in addiction relapse models: A review of their Pavlovian and instrumental mechanisms, history, and terminology. NEUROANATOMY AND BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.35430/nab.2021.e18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of relapse to drug-seeking have borrowed heavily from associative learning approaches. In studies of relapse-like behaviour, animals learn to self-administer drugs then receive a period of extinction during which they learn to inhibit the operant response. Several triggers can produce a recovery of responding which form the basis of a variety of models. These include the passage of time (spontaneous recovery), drug availability (rapid reacquisition), extinction of an alternative response (resurgence), context change (renewal), drug priming, stress, and cues (reinstatement). In most cases, the behavioural processes driving extinction and recovery in operant drug self-administration studies are similar to those in the Pavlovian and behavioural literature, such as context effects. However, reinstatement in addiction studies have several differences with Pavlovian reinstatement, which have emerged over several decades, in experimental procedures, associative mechanisms, and terminology. Interestingly, in cue-induced reinstatement, drug-paired cues that are present during acquisition are omitted during lever extinction. The unextinguished drug-paired cue may limit the model’s translational relevance to cue exposure therapy and renders its underlying associative mechanisms ambiguous. We review major behavioural theories that explain recovery phenomena, with a particular focus on cue-induced reinstatement because it is a widely used model in addiction. We argue that cue-induced reinstatement may be explained by a combination of behavioural processes, including reacquisition of conditioned reinforcement and Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer. While there are important differences between addiction studies and the behavioural literature in terminology and procedures, it is clear that understanding associative learning processes is essential for studying relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda Po Pyn Lay
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology/Groupe de Recherche en Neurobiologie Comportementale, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Shaun Yon-Seng Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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da Costa RQM, Furukawa E, Hoefle S, Moll J, Tripp G, Mattos P. An Adaptation of Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer (PIT) Methodology to Examine the Energizing Effects of Reward-Predicting Cues on Behavior in Young Adults. Front Psychol 2020; 11:195. [PMID: 32116971 PMCID: PMC7034436 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing recognition that much of human behavior is governed by the presence of classically conditioned cues. The Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer (PIT) paradigm offers a way to measure the effects of classically conditioned stimuli on behavior. In the current study, a novel behavioral task, an adaptation of the PIT framework, was developed for use in conjunction with an fMRI classical conditioning task. Twenty-four healthy young adults completed (1) instrumental training, (2) Pavlovian conditioning, and (3) a Transfer test. During instrumental training, participants learned to apply force to a handgrip to win money from slot machines pictured on a computer screen. During Pavlovian conditioning, slot machines appeared with one of two abstract symbols (cues), one symbol was predictive of monetary reward. During the Transfer test, participants again applied force to a handgrip to win money. This time, the slot machines were presented with the Pavlovian cues, but with the outcomes hidden. The results indicated increased effort on the instrumental task, i.e. higher response frequency and greater force, in the presence of the reward-predicting cue. Our findings add to the growing number of studies demonstrating PIT effects in humans. This new paradigm is effective in measuring the effects of a conditioned stimulus on behavioral activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Quimas Molina da Costa
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Neurology Department, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Emi Furukawa
- Human Developmental Neurobiology Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Sebastian Hoefle
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jorge Moll
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gail Tripp
- Human Developmental Neurobiology Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Paulo Mattos
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Institute of Psychiatry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Jeffs S, Duka T. Single-response appetitive Pavlovian to instrumental transfer is suppressed by aversive counter-conditioning. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2019; 72:2820-2832. [DOI: 10.1177/1747021819862996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Environmental stimuli, when paired with reward, can influence behaviour in maladaptive ways, for example, by encouraging overeating or addiction. Such behaviour can be sensitive to reward value manipulations, under circumscribed conditions, but whether reward-seeking is also sensitive to stimulus value manipulations remains unclear. Thus, the current experiment investigated whether reducing the hedonic value of a reward-paired stimulus would reduce reward-seeking behaviour. In total, 36 participants successfully completed a single-response Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) task with a counter-conditioning procedure. The Pavlovian phase associated three conditioned stimuli (CSs) with money at 100%, 50%, or 0% contingency. Counter-conditioning then followed for the experimental group, who saw the 100% CS paired with unpleasant pictures, while the control group saw only neutral images. Instrumental training required participants to learn a button-pressing response to win money. The transfer phase contrasted instrumental responding during baseline and CS presentation. Both experimental and control groups liked the 100% CS more than the other CSs after Pavlovian training, but counter-conditioning reduced this 100% CS liking. In transfer, the experimental group showed an abolition of appetitive PIT, while the control group showed maintenance of appetitive PIT. However, this group difference was only evident in response vigour, not response initiation. In summary, CS hedonic value influences cue-potentiated instrumental responding. More specifically, hedonic value of a reward-paired cue influences the vigour of instrumental responses, but not the decision to initiate a response. These data may have relevance to smoking cessation policies, where the introduction of health warnings may be viewed as a real-world example of counter conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Jeffs
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Theodora Duka
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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Addiction as Learned Behavior Patterns. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8081086. [PMID: 31344831 PMCID: PMC6723628 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8081086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals with substance use disorders (SUDs) have to cope with drug-related cues and contexts which can affect instrumental drug seeking, as shown with Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) tasks among humans and animals. Our review addresses two potential mechanisms that may contribute to habitual or even compulsive drug seeking and taking. One mechanism is represented by Pavlovian and PIT effects on drug intake. The other is a shift from goal-directed to habitual drug intake, which can be accessed via model-based versus model-free decision-making in respective learning tasks. We discuss the impact of these learning mechanisms on drug consumption. First, we describe how Pavlovian and instrumental learning mechanisms interact in drug addiction. Secondly, we address the effects of acute and chronic stress exposure on behavioral and neural PIT effects in alcohol use disorder (AUD). Thirdly, we discuss how these learning mechanisms and their respective neurobiological correlates can contribute to losing versus regaining control over drug intake. Utilizing mobile technology (mobile applications on smartphones including games that measure learning mechanisms, activity bracelets), computational models, and real-world data may help to better identify patients with a high relapse risk and to offer targeted behavioral and pharmacotherapeutic interventions for vulnerable patients.
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8
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Bruijnzeel AW. Reward Processing and Smoking. Nicotine Tob Res 2017; 19:661-662. [PMID: 28486714 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntw303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adriaan W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Lehner R, Balsters JH, Bürgler A, Hare TA, Wenderoth N. Food-Predicting Stimuli Differentially Influence Eye Movements and Goal-Directed Behavior in Normal-Weight, Overweight, and Obese Individuals. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:230. [PMID: 29180968 PMCID: PMC5693873 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Obese individuals have been shown to exhibit abnormal sensitivity to rewards and reward-predicting cues as for example food-associated cues frequently used in advertisements. It has also been shown that food-associated cues can increase goal-directed behavior but it is currently unknown, whether this effect differs between normal-weight, overweight, and obese individuals. Here, we investigate this question by using a Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) task in normal-weight (N = 20), overweight (N = 17), and obese (N = 17) individuals. Furthermore, we applied eye tracking during Pavlovian conditioning to measure the participants' conditioned response as a proxy of the incentive salience of the predicted reward. Our results show that the goal-directed behavior of overweight individuals was more strongly influenced by food-predicting cues (i.e., stronger PIT effect) than that of normal-weight and obese individuals (p < 0.001). The weight groups were matched for age, gender, education, and parental education. Eye movements during Pavlovian conditioning also differed between weight categories (p < 0.05) and were used to categorize individuals based on their fixation style into "high eye index" versus "low eye index" as well. Our main finding was that the fixation style exhibited a complex interaction with the weight category. Furthermore, we found that normal-weight individuals of the group "high eye index" had higher body mass index within the healthy range than individuals of the group "low eye index" (p < 0.001), but this relationship was not found within in the overweight or obese groups (p > 0.646). Our findings are largely consistent with the incentive sensitization theory predicting that overweight individuals are more susceptible to food-related cues than normal-weight controls. However, this hypersensitivity might be reduced in obese individuals, possibly due to habitual/compulsive overeating or differences in reward valuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rea Lehner
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich, University of Zurich, University and Balgrist Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Joshua H Balsters
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandra Bürgler
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Todd A Hare
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich, University of Zurich, University and Balgrist Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Social and Neural Systems Research, Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Wenderoth
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Neuroscience Center Zurich, ETH Zurich, University of Zurich, University and Balgrist Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, Biomedical Sciences Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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