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Schulze A, Busse M. Sports Diet and Oral Health in Athletes: A Comprehensive Review. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2024; 60:319. [PMID: 38399605 PMCID: PMC10890155 DOI: 10.3390/medicina60020319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Food and fluid supply is fundamental for optimal athletic performance but can also be a risk factor for caries, dental erosion, and periodontal diseases, which in turn can impair athletic performance. Many studies have reported a high prevalence of oral diseases in elite athletes, notably dental caries 20-84%, dental erosion 42-59%, gingivitis 58-77%, and periodontal disease 15-41%, caused by frequent consumption of sugars/carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fats, or deficient protein intake. There are three possible major reasons for poor oral health in athletes which are addressed in this review: oxidative stress, sports diet, and oral hygiene. This update particularly summarizes potential sports nutritional effects on athletes' dental health. Overall, sports diet appropriately applied to deliver benefits for performance associated with oral hygiene requirements is necessary to ensure athletes' health. The overall aim is to help athletes, dentists, and nutritionists understand the tangled connections between sports diet, oral health, and oral healthcare to develop mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of dental diseases due to nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antina Schulze
- General Outpatient Clinic of Sports Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
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Kapoor MP, Sugita M, Kawaguchi M, Timm D, Kawamura A, Abe A, Okubo T. Influence of iron supplementation on fatigue, mood states and sweating profiles of healthy non-anemic athletes during a training exercise: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Contemp Clin Trials Commun 2023; 32:101084. [PMID: 36817736 PMCID: PMC9932653 DOI: 10.1016/j.conctc.2023.101084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is specifically important to athletes, and attention has grown to the association between sports performance and iron regulation in the daily diets of athletes. The study presents new insights into stress, mood states, fatigue, and sweating behavior among the non-anemic athletes with sweating exercise habits who consumed a routine low dose (3.6 mg/day) of iron supplementation. In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study, both non-anemic male (N = 51) and female (N = 42) athletes were supplemented either with a known highly bioavailable iron formulation (SunActive® Fe) or placebo during the follow-up training exercise period over four weeks at their respective designated clinical sites. The effect of oral iron consumption was examined on fatigue, stress profiles, as well as the quality of life using the profile of mood state (POMS) test or a visual analog scale (VAS) questionnaire, followed by an exercise and well-being related fatigue-sweat. Also, their monotonic association with stress biomarkers (salivary α-amylase, salivary cortisol, and salivary immunoglobulin A) were determined using spearman's rank correlation coefficient test. Repeated measure multivariate analysis of variance (group by time) revealed that the total mood disturbance (TMD) score was significantly lower (P = 0.016; F = 6.26) between placebo and iron supplementation groups over the four weeks study period among female athletes. Also, a significant reduction in tired feeling/exhaustion after the exercise (P = 0.05; F = 4.07) between the placebo and iron intake groups was noticed. A significant within-group reduction (P ≤ 0.05) was noticed in the degree of sweat among both male and female athletes after 2 and 4 weeks of iron supplementation, while athletes of the placebo intake group experienced a non-significant within-group reduction in the degree of sweat. Overall, the result indicates routine use of low dose (3.6 mg/day) iron supplementation is beneficial for non-anemic endurance athletes to improve stress, mood states, subjective fatigue, and sweating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahendra P. Kapoor
- Taiyo Kagaku Co., Ltd., Research & Development, Nutrition Division, 1-3 Takaramachi, Yokkaichi, Mie, 510-0844, Japan,Corresponding author.
| | - Masaaki Sugita
- Nippon Sport Science University, Faculty of Sport Science, 7-1-1 Fukusawa, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo, 158 8508, Japan
| | - Mikiko Kawaguchi
- Otsuma Women's University, Faculty of Home Economics, Department of Food Science, 12 Sanbancho, Chiyoda, Tokyo, 102-8357, Japan
| | - Derek Timm
- Taiyo International Inc, 5960 Golden Hills Dr., Minneapolis, MN, 55416, USA
| | - Aki Kawamura
- Nippon Sport Science University, Faculty of Sport Science, 7-1-1 Fukusawa, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo, 158 8508, Japan
| | - Aya Abe
- Taiyo Kagaku Co., Ltd., Research & Development, Nutrition Division, 1-3 Takaramachi, Yokkaichi, Mie, 510-0844, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Okubo
- Taiyo Kagaku Co., Ltd., Research & Development, Nutrition Division, 1-3 Takaramachi, Yokkaichi, Mie, 510-0844, Japan
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Chronic Training Induces Metabolic and Proteomic Response in Male and Female Basketball Players: Salivary Modifications during In-Season Training Programs. Healthcare (Basel) 2023; 11:healthcare11020241. [PMID: 36673609 PMCID: PMC9858989 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare11020241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the salivary proteome and metabolome of highly trained female and male young basketball players, highlighting common and different traits. A total of 20 male and female basketball players (10 female and 10 male) and 20 sedentary control subjects (10 female and 10 male) were included in the study. The athletes exercised at least five times per week for 2 h per day. Saliva samples were collected mid-season, between 9:00 and 11:00 a.m. and away from sport competition. The proteome and metabolome were analyzed by using 2DE and GC-MS techniques, respectively. A computerized 2DE gel image analysis revealed 43 spots that varied in intensity among groups. Between these spots, 10 (23.2%) were differentially expressed among male athletes and controls, 22 (51.2%) between female basketball players and controls, 11 spots (25.6%) between male and female athletes, and 13 spots (30.2%) between male and female controls. Among the proteins identified were Immunoglobulin, Alpha-Amylase, and Dermcidin, which are inflammation-related proteins. In addition, several amino acids, such as glutamic acid, lysine, ornithine, glycine, tyrosine, threonine, and valine, were increased in trained athletes. In this study, we highlight that saliva is a useful biofluid to assess athlete performance and confirm that the adaptation of men and women to exercise has some common features, but also some different sex-specific behaviors, including differential amino acid utilization and expression of inflammation-related proteins, which need to be further investigated. Moreover, in the future, it will be interesting to examine the influence of sport-type on these differences.
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The Effects of Physical Exercise on Saliva Composition: A Comprehensive Review. Dent J (Basel) 2022; 10:dj10010007. [PMID: 35049605 PMCID: PMC8775020 DOI: 10.3390/dj10010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Saliva consists of organic and inorganic constituents. During exercise, analysis of the saliva can provide valuable information regarding training stress, adaptation and exercise performance. The objective of the present article was to review the effect of physical exercise on saliva composition. The shift in the composition of the saliva, during and after a workout, reflects the benefits of exercise, its potential risks and the capability of the saliva to serve as a health indicator. The type and the frequency of training, the physical condition and the athletes’ general health influence the hormones, immunoglobulins and saliva enzymes. The correlation between saliva and physical exercise has to be further investigated and the available knowledge to be applied for the benefit of the athletes during sports activities.
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Akbari Fard L, Zehsaz F, Farhangi N. Concurrent exercise training effect on salivary immunoglobulin A and alpha-amylase in children with cerebral palsy. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-020-00696-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Arnold JT, Bailey SJ, Hodder SG, Fujii N, Lloyd AB. Independent and combined impact of hypoxia and acute inorganic nitrate ingestion on thermoregulatory responses to the cold. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1207-1218. [PMID: 33558988 PMCID: PMC7966143 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04602-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Purpose This study assessed the impact of normobaric hypoxia and acute nitrate ingestion on shivering thermogenesis, cutaneous vascular control, and thermometrics in response to cold stress. Method Eleven male volunteers underwent passive cooling at 10 °C air temperature across four conditions: (1) normoxia with placebo ingestion, (2) hypoxia (0.130 FiO2) with placebo ingestion, (3) normoxia with 13 mmol nitrate ingestion, and (4) hypoxia with nitrate ingestion. Physiological metrics were assessed as a rate of change over 45 min to determine heat loss, and at the point of shivering onset to determine the thermogenic thermoeffector threshold. Result Independently, hypoxia expedited shivering onset time (p = 0.05) due to a faster cooling rate as opposed to a change in central thermoeffector thresholds. Specifically, compared to normoxia, hypoxia increased skin blood flow (p = 0.02), leading to an increased core-cooling rate (p = 0.04) and delta change in rectal temperature (p = 0.03) over 45 min, yet the same rectal temperature at shivering onset (p = 0.9). Independently, nitrate ingestion delayed shivering onset time (p = 0.01), mediated by a change in central thermoeffector thresholds, independent of changes in peripheral heat exchange. Specifically, compared to placebo ingestion, no difference was observed in skin blood flow (p = 0.5), core-cooling rate (p = 0.5), or delta change in rectal temperature (p = 0.7) over 45 min, while nitrate reduced rectal temperature at shivering onset (p = 0.04). No interaction was observed between hypoxia and nitrate ingestion. Conclusion These data improve our understanding of how hypoxia and nitric oxide modulate cold thermoregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josh T Arnold
- Environmental Ergonomics Research Centre, James France Bldg, Design School, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Stephen J Bailey
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Simon G Hodder
- Environmental Ergonomics Research Centre, James France Bldg, Design School, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Naoto Fujii
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Alex B Lloyd
- Environmental Ergonomics Research Centre, James France Bldg, Design School, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK.
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Yoshino Y, Yamamoto A, Misu K, Wakabayashi Y, Kitazawa T, Ota Y. Exposure to low temperatures suppresses the production of B-cell activating factor via TLR3 in BEAS-2B cells. Biochem Biophys Rep 2020; 24:100809. [PMID: 32923700 PMCID: PMC7474404 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2020.100809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute viral respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are commonly associated with cold weather; however, the mechanism behind this is still unclear. Secretory IgA (sIgA) mainly contributes to the immune response against pathogenic microorganisms in the respiratory tract. Certain pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) induce the expression of B-cell activating factor (BAFF) in epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. BAFF transforms B cells into plasma cells, which leads to the mass production of immunoglobulins, including IgA, on the mucosal epithelium. However, no studies have described the relationship between cold exposure and BAFF and/or sIgA in RTI. The aim of our study was to determine this relationship in vitro by investigating the effect of low temperature on BAFF production by BEAS-2B cells after the addition of toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. We showed stimulation of polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), which led BEAS-2B to produce interferon (IFN)-β. IFN-β itself induced BEAS-2B cells to produce BAFF. Janus kinase inhibitor I decreased the amount of BAFF produced in BEAS-2B cells upon stimulation with IFN-β and poly I:C. Significantly less BAFF was produced post-poly I:C stimulation in low-temperature conditions than in normal-temperature conditions (mean ± SD: 41.2 ± 23.3 [33 °C] vs. 138.3 ± 7.1 pg/mL [37 °C], P = 0.05). However, the low-temperature condition itself was not cytotoxic. The stimulation of poly I:C produced BAFF from BEAS2B cells via IFN-β production and the JAK/signal transducer and activator of transcription pathway played an important role in BAFF production in BEAS-2B cells. Cold exposure reduced BAFF production by BEAS2B cells after stimulation with the TLR3 ligand. Cold exposure may, therefore, suppress the production of BAFF, resulting in the inhibition of IgA secretion in the bronchial epithelium, which explains the increased frequency of RTIs in cold weather. Relationship between cold exposure and B-cell activating factor (BAFF) was assessed. BAFF produced post poly I:C stimulation was lesser under low-temperature conditions. Cold exposure may suppress BAFF production to inhibit IgA secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Yoshino
- Department of Medicine, Teikyo University School of Medicine, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8606, Japan
| | - Ai Yamamoto
- Department of Medicine, Teikyo University School of Medicine, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8606, Japan
| | - Keita Misu
- Department of Medicine, Teikyo University School of Medicine, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8606, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Wakabayashi
- Department of Medicine, Teikyo University School of Medicine, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8606, Japan
| | - Takatoshi Kitazawa
- Department of Medicine, Teikyo University School of Medicine, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8606, Japan
| | - Yasuo Ota
- Department of Medicine, Teikyo University School of Medicine, 2-11-1 Kaga, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8606, Japan
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Franco-Martínez L, Martínez-Subiela S, Cerón JJ, Tecles F, Eckersall PD, Oravcova K, Tvarijonaviciute A. Biomarkers of health and welfare: A One Health perspective from the laboratory side. Res Vet Sci 2019; 128:299-307. [PMID: 31869596 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2019.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A biomarker is any measurement reflecting an interaction between a biological system and a potential hazard, which may be chemical, physical, or biological. The One World, One Health concept established that human and animal health and the environmental state are highly interconnected, sharing common aspects that can be applied globally in these three components. In this paper, we review how the concept of One Health can be applied to biomarkers of health and welfare, with a special focus on five points that can be applied to any biomarker when it is expected to be used to evaluate the human, animal or environmental health. Three of these points are: (1) the different biomarkers that can be used, (2) the different sample types where the biomarkers can be analysed, and (3) the main methods that can be used for their measurement. In addition, we will evaluate two key points needed for adequate use of a biomarker in any situation: (4) a proper analytical validation in the sample that it is going to be used, and (5) a correct selection of the biomarker. It is expected that this knowledge will help to have a broader idea about the use of biomarkers of health and welfare and also will contribute to a better and more accurate use of these biomarkers having in mind their One Health perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Franco-Martínez
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), Veterinary School, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Silvia Martínez-Subiela
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), Veterinary School, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - José Joaquín Cerón
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), Veterinary School, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Fernando Tecles
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), Veterinary School, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Peter David Eckersall
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
| | - Katarina Oravcova
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Rd, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
| | - Asta Tvarijonaviciute
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Clinical Analysis (Interlab-UMU), Veterinary School, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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Mackay K, González C, Zbinden-Foncea H, Peñailillo L. Effects of oral contraceptive use on female sexual salivary hormones and indirect markers of muscle damage following eccentric cycling in women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:2733-2744. [PMID: 31686212 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04254-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the effects of oral contraceptive (OC) use on salivary concentrations of testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, and its effects on the changes in indirect markers of muscle damage following eccentric cycling in women. METHODS 10 oral contraceptive users at follicular phase (OC-FOL), 10 non-oral contraceptives users at follicular phase (NOC-FOL), and 10 non-oral contraceptives users at ovulation phase (NOC-OV) participated. Subjects performed 30 min of eccentric cycling at 90% of their maximal concentric power output (PO). Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC), creatine kinase activity (CK), muscle soreness (SOR), and pain pressure threshold of vastus lateralis (PPT-VL) was assessed before, immediately after, and 24-96 h after cycling. Salivary estrogen, progesterone and testosterone concentrations were measured before, 72 and 96 h after exercise. RESULTS No difference in estrogen levels between users and non-users was observed. Testosterone was 45% lower in OC-FOL than NOC-FOL at 96 h post-exercise (P = 0.01). Progesterone was 30.8-fold higher in NOC-OV than OC-FOL and 9.7-fold higher than NOC-FOL at 96 h post-exercise. The NOC-FOL recovered all indirect markers of muscle damage by 72 h post-exercise (P > 0.05). NOC-OV recovered MVC strength and muscle soreness (SOR and PPT-VL) by 96 h post-exercise (P > 0.05). OC-FOL did not recover baseline values of MVC, SOR, CK, and PPT-VL by 96 h. CONCLUSION These results suggest that recovery after exercise-induced muscle damage took longer in OC-FOL, followed by NOC-OV and by NOC-FOL, respectively. Furthermore, testosterone and progesterone levels may affect recovery of indirect markers of muscle damage in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Mackay
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristopher González
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Hermann Zbinden-Foncea
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis Peñailillo
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile.
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Roca E, Cantó E, Nescolarde L, Perea L, Bayes-Genis A, Sibila O, Vidal S. Effects of a polysaccharide-based multi-ingredient supplement on salivary immunity in non-elite marathon runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2019; 16:14. [PMID: 30909945 PMCID: PMC6434855 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-019-0281-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extreme exercise may alter the innate immune system. Glycans are involved in several biological processes including immune system regulation. However, limited data regarding the impact of glycan supplementation on immunological parameters after strenuous exercise are available. We aimed to determine the impact of a standardized polysaccharide-based multi-ingredient supplement, Advanced Ambrotose© complex powder (AA) on salivary secretory Immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and pro- and anti-inflammatory protein levels before and after a marathon in non-elite runners. METHODS Forty-one male marathon runners who completed the 42.195 km of the 2016 Barcelona marathon were randomly assigned to two study groups. Of them, n = 20 (48%) received the AA supplement for 15 days prior the race (AA group) and n = 21 (52%) did not receive any AA supplement (non-AA group). Saliva and blood samples were collected the day before the marathon and two days after the end of the race. Salivary IgA, pro-inflammatory chemokines (Gro-alpha, Gro-beta, MCP-1) and anti-inflammatory proteins (Angiogenin, ACRP, Siglec 5) were determined using commercially ELISA kits in saliva supernatant. Biochemical parameters, including C-reactive protein, cardiac biomarkers, and blood hemogram were also evaluated. RESULTS Marathon runners who did not receive the AA supplement experienced a decrease of salivary sIgA and pro-inflammatory chemokines (Gro-alpha and Gro-beta) after the race, while runners with AA supplementation showed lower levels of anti-inflammatory chemokines (Angiogenin). Gro-alpha and Gro-beta salivary levels were lower before the race in the AA group and correlated with blood leukocytes and platelets. CONCLUSIONS Changes in salivary sIgA and inflammatory chemokines, especially Gro-alfa and Gro-beta, were observed in marathon runners supplemented with AA prior to the race. These findings suggested that AA may have a positive effect on immune response after a strenuous exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Roca
- Research Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Jordi Girona, 1-3, 08034, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Elisabet Cantó
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Lexa Nescolarde
- Research Centre for Biomedical Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Jordi Girona, 1-3, 08034, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Electronic, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lidia Perea
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Antoni Bayes-Genis
- Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Research Program, Fundació Institut d'Investigació en Ciències de la Salut Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
| | - Oriol Sibila
- Respiratory Department, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Autonomous University of Barcelona and Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Silvia Vidal
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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Jones AW, Davison G. Exercise, Immunity, and Illness. MUSCLE AND EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [PMCID: PMC7149380 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-814593-7.00015-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
It is generally accepted that moderate amounts of exercise improve immune system functions and hence reduce the risk of infection whereas athletes engaged in regular prolonged and/or intensive training have a higher than “normal” incidence of minor infections, especially of the upper respiratory tract (URT, e.g., common cold and influenza). This is likely related to regular acute (and possibly chronic) periods of exercise-induced changes in immune function. URT infections can compromise performance directly if suffered shortly before or during competition or indirectly if suffered at other times via effects on training and/or physiological adaptations. This chapter covers the effects of exercise (acute and chronic), both positive and negative, on immune function and consequent infection risk, and considers the current state-of-the-art for monitoring and assessing this in athletes.
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Keaney LC, Kilding AE, Merien F, Dulson DK. The impact of sport related stressors on immunity and illness risk in team-sport athletes. J Sci Med Sport 2018; 21:1192-1199. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2018.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Lindsay A, Costello JT. Realising the Potential of Urine and Saliva as Diagnostic Tools in Sport and Exercise Medicine. Sports Med 2018; 47:11-31. [PMID: 27294353 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0558-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Accurate monitoring of homeostatic perturbations following various psychophysiological stressors is essential in sports and exercise medicine. Various biomarkers are routinely used as monitoring tools in both clinical and elite sport settings. Blood collection and muscle biopsies, both invasive in nature, are considered the gold standard for the analysis of these biomarkers in exercise science. Exploring non-invasive methods of collecting and analysing biomarkers that are capable of providing accurate information regarding exercise-induced physiological and psychological stress is of obvious practical importance. This review describes the potential benefits, and the limitations, of using saliva and urine to ascertain biomarkers capable of identifying important stressors that are routinely encountered before, during, or after intense or unaccustomed exercise, competition, over-training, and inappropriate recovery. In particular, we focus on urinary and saliva biomarkers that have previously been used to monitor muscle damage, inflammation, cardiovascular stress, oxidative stress, hydration status, and brain distress. Evidence is provided from a range of empirical studies suggesting that urine and saliva are both capable of identifying various stressors. Although additional research regarding the efficacy of using urine and/or saliva to indicate the severity of exercise-induced psychophysiological stress is required, it is likely that these non-invasive biomarkers will represent "the future" in sports and exercise medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus Lindsay
- Program in Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
| | - Joseph T Costello
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Spinnaker Building, Cambridge Road, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, UK
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Hanstock HG, Walsh NP, Edwards JP, Fortes MB, Cosby SL, Nugent A, Curran T, Coyle PV, Ward MD, Yong XHA. Tear Fluid SIgA as a Noninvasive Biomarker of Mucosal Immunity and Common Cold Risk. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2017; 48:569-77. [PMID: 26496418 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Research has not convincingly demonstrated the utility of saliva secretory immunoglobulin-A (SIgA) as a biomarker of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) risk, and disagreement exists about the influence of heavy exercise ("open-window theory") and dehydration on saliva SIgA. Prompted by the search for viable alternatives, we compared the utility of tear and saliva SIgA to predict URTI prospectively (study 1) and assessed the influence of exercise (study 2) and dehydration (study 3) using a repeated-measures crossover design. METHODS In study 1, 40 subjects were recruited during the common-cold season. Subjects provided tear and saliva samples weekly and recorded upper respiratory symptoms (URS) daily for 3 wk. Real-time PCR confirmed common-cold pathogens in 9 of 11 subjects reporting URS (82%). Predictive utility of tear and saliva SIgA was explored by comparing healthy samples with those collected during the week before URS. In study 2, 13 subjects performed a 2-h run at 65% V˙O2peak. In study 3, 13 subjects performed exercise heat stress to 3% body mass loss followed by overnight fluid restriction. RESULTS Tear SIgA concentration and secretion rate were 48% and 51% lower, respectively, during URTI and 34% and 46% lower the week before URS (P < 0.05), but saliva SIgA remained unchanged. The risk of URS the following week increased ninefold (95% confidence interval, 1.7-48) when the tear SIgA secretion rate was <5.5 μg·min(-1) and sixfold (95% confidence interval, 1.2-29) when the tear SIgA secretion rate decreased >30%. Tear SIgA secretion rate >5.5 μg·min(-1) or no decrease of >30% predicted subjects free of URS in >80% of cases. Tear SIgA concentration decreased after exercise (-57%, P < 0.05) in line with the "open-window theory" but was unaffected by dehydration. Saliva flow rate decreased and saliva SIgA concentration increased after exercise and during dehydration (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Tear SIgA has utility as a noninvasive biomarker of mucosal immunity and common-cold risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen G Hanstock
- 1College of Health and Behavioural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, UNITED KINGDOM; 2Centre for Infection and Immunity, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UNITED KINGDOM; and 3Regional Virus Laboratory, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast, UNITED KINGDOM
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15
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Walsh NP, Oliver SJ. Exercise, immune function and respiratory infection: An update on the influence of training and environmental stress. Immunol Cell Biol 2015; 94:132-9. [PMID: 26563736 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2015.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Neil P Walsh
- Extremes Research Group, Bangor University Bangor UK
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16
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Min JH, Kwon HK, Kim BI. Prevention of dental erosion of a sports drink by nano-sized hydroxyapatite in situ study. Int J Paediatr Dent 2015; 25:61-9. [PMID: 24628844 DOI: 10.1111/ipd.12101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIM To evaluate the inhibitory effects of the sports drink containing nano-sized hydroxyapatite (nano-HA) on dental erosion in situ. DESIGN The study had a single-blind, two-treatment crossover design. The two treatment groups were a control group (CG; Powerade only) and an experimental group (EG; 0.25% wt/vol nano-HA was added to Powerade). Ten subjects wore removable palatal appliances containing bovine enamel specimens. The appliances were immersed in each drink for 10 mins, 4 times a day for 10 days. The tooth surface microhardness (SMH) was tested, and the erosion depth and the morphology of the tooth surface were observed. The data were analysed by repeated measures anova and t-test. RESULTS Between the baseline and the 10th day, SMH was decreased by 80% in the specimens of the CG (P < 0.001), whereas there was only a 6% decrease in the SMH of the specimens in the EG. An erosion depth of 12.70 ± 4.66 μm and an irregular tooth surface were observed on the 10th day in the specimens of the CG. No dental erosions, however, was observed in the specimens of the EG. CONCLUSIONS The sports drink containing 0.25% nano-HA was effective in preventing dental erosion in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyun Min
- Department of Preventive Dentistry and Public Oral Health, Oral Science Research Institute, BK 21 Plus Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, South Korea
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17
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Riera J, Pons V, Martinez-Puig D, Chetrit C, Tur JA, Pons A, Drobnic F. Dietary nucleotide improves markers of immune response to strenuous exercise under a cold environment. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2013; 10:20. [PMID: 23566489 PMCID: PMC3626726 DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-10-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Strenuous exercise has been classically associated to immune-suppression and consequently to an increased risk of infections, especially at the upper respiratory tract. The administration of dietary nucleotides has been demonstrated useful to maintain the immune function in situations of stress and thus could be an appropriate strategy to counteract the decline of the immune function associated to strenuous exercise. The aim of the present study was to asses the impact of a specific nucleotide formulation (Inmunactive®) on the markers of immune function of athletes after a heavy exercise bout under cold conditions. Methods Twenty elite male taekwondo athletes were randomly divided into two groups of 10 subjects that were supplemented with placebo (P) or Inmunactive (I) at 480 mg/day during 30 days. At baseline (day 0) and after 4 wk of supplementation (day 30) each subject undertook an exhaustion exercise test using a cycloergometer. Skin temperature, core temperature, heart rate, lactate concentration and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded during the test. Blood and saliva samples were obtained before and after each exercise test for determination of blood cell concentrations, PHA-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation (PHA-LP) and salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA). Results Exercise tests induced neutrophilia and reduction in lymphocyte blood counts on day 0 and on day 30 in both groups. However, the I group exhibited a faster recovery from the lymphopenic response than the P group, so that lymphocyte levels were higher after 150 min (P < 0.0028). Furthermore, the lymphoproliferative response was modulated by nucleotide supplementation, since it was higher in the I group on day 30 despite an almost significant (P < 0.06) exercise-evoked decrease at baseline. Conclusions These findings suggest that supplementation with a nucleotide-based product for 4 weeks could counteract the impairment of immune function after heavy exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Riera
- Sports Physiology Department, Centre d'Alt Rendiment (CAR-GIRSANE), Av, Alcalde Barnils 3-5, Sant Cugat del Vallés, Barcelona, 08174, Spain.
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18
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Allgrove JE, Oliveira M, Gleeson M. Stimulating whole saliva affects the response of antimicrobial proteins to exercise. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2013; 24:649-55. [PMID: 23506418 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the salivary secretion rates of antimicrobial proteins in response to prolonged, exhaustive exercise in both stimulated (STIM) and unstimulated (UNSTIM) saliva flow sample methods. Twenty-four trained men cycled for 2.5 h at 60% V̇O₂max and then to exhaustion at 75% V̇O₂max. Timed collections of whole saliva were made before exercise, mid-exercise, at the end of the moderate exercise bout and post-exhaustive exercise. After each UNSTIM collection, a STIM sample was collected following chewing flavored gum for 1 min. Saliva was analysed for lysozyme, α-amylase and salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA), and secretion rates were calculated. Saliva flow was 156% higher in STIM compared with UNSTIM (P < 0.001) and decreased with exercise in STIM only (P < 0.001). Exercise increased lysozyme and α-amylase levels and secretion rates were 144% higher and 152% higher in STIM compared with UNSTIM for lysozyme and α-amylase, respectively (all P < 0.001). S-IgA concentration (P < 0.05) and secretion rate (P < 0.001) increased with exercise but were both lower in STIM compared with UNSTIM (P < 0.001). In conclusion, a STIM saliva flow collection during exercise by chewing flavored gum increased the quantity of saliva and the secretion of lysozyme and α-amylase, but had a limited impact on the secretion of s-IgA.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Allgrove
- School of Life Sciences, Kingston University, London, UK.,School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - M Oliveira
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - M Gleeson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
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Tsai ML, Li TL, Chou LW, Chang CK, Huang SY, Fang SH. Resting salivary levels of IgA and cortisol are significantly affected during intensive resistance training periods in elite male weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26:2202-8. [PMID: 21997453 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e31823a4246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the cumulative effects of intensive resistance training on salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and cortisol responses in elite male weightlifters. Eleven elite male Taiwanese weightlifters were trained through 3 training stages before a national weightlifting competition, and this was followed by a 2-week recovery stage. Resting saliva samples were collected once in each of the 4 stages. Salivary concentrations of total protein (TP), SIgA, lactoferrin, and cortisol were measured. The results showed that (a) salivary TP concentrations were not significantly affected; (b) resting levels of SIgA, the ratio of SIgA to TP (SIgA/TP), cortisol, and the ratio of cortisol to TP (cortisol/TP) were significantly higher in the training stages than in the recovery stage; (c) a positive correlation was revealed between the ratios of SIgA/TP and cortisol/TP; and (d) the resting salivary lactoferrin concentrations and the ratio of lactoferrin to TP (lactoferrin/TP) were significantly lower in stage 1 than in the recovery stage. The findings in this study suggest that prolonged, intensive resistance training exerts cumulative effects on SIgA and cortisol responses in elite weightlifters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Lung Tsai
- Institute of Athletics, National Taiwan College of Physical Education, Taichung, Taiwan
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20
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Trochimiak T, Hübner-Woźniak E. Effect of exercise on the level of immunoglobulin a in saliva. Biol Sport 2012; 29:255-61. [PMID: 24868115 PMCID: PMC4033058 DOI: 10.5604/20831862.1019662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to describe the structure, production and function of secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) as well as changes of its concentration caused by exercise of various intensity and duration. Immunoglobulin A is the main class of antibodies present in the body secreted fluids such as saliva, tears or mucus from the intestines. It is generally recognized that IgA, due to its dominance in the immune system of mucous membranes, is the first line of defence against harmful environmental factors. The secretion and composition of saliva depends on the activity of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Physical activity, stimulating the autonomous nervous system, may reduce the amount of saliva and/or inhibit its secretion. The relationship between physical activity and the suppression of the immune system is not fully understood, but it is known that moderate intensity exercise can improve immune defences, while extreme effort can reduce them by creating an increased risk of upper respiratory tract inflammation (URTI). In athletes, the lowest risk of upper tract infection was connected with the case of moderate intensity exercise. It is now believed that the relationship between exercise volume and the risk of URTI has the shape of the letter "J". This means that both too little and too much physical activity may increase the risk of upper respiratory tract infection. Training optimization and correct balance between exercise and rest periods may reduce the risk of adverse changes in the immune system and decrease the frequency of URTI.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Trochimiak
- Dept. of Biochemistry, University of Physical Education, Warsaw, Poland
| | - E Hübner-Woźniak
- Dept. of Biochemistry, University of Physical Education, Warsaw, Poland
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21
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Leicht CA, Bishop NC, Goosey-Tolfrey VL. Mucosal immune responses during court training in elite tetraplegic athletes. Spinal Cord 2012; 50:760-5. [DOI: 10.1038/sc.2012.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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Fortes MB, Diment BC, Di Felice U, Walsh NP. Dehydration decreases saliva antimicrobial proteins important for mucosal immunity. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2012; 37:850-9. [DOI: 10.1139/h2012-054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of exercise-induced dehydration and subsequent overnight fluid restriction on saliva antimicrobial proteins important for host defence (secretory IgA (SIgA), α-amylase, and lysozyme). On two randomized occasions, 13 participants exercised in the heat, either without fluid intake to evoke progressive body mass losses (BML) of 1%, 2%, and 3% with subsequent overnight fluid restriction until 0800 h in the following morning (DEH) or with fluids to offset losses (CON). Participants in the DEH trial rehydrated from 0800 h until 1100 h on day 2. BML, plasma osmolality (Posm), and urine specific gravity (USG) were assessed as hydration indices. Unstimulated saliva samples were assessed for flow rate (SFR), SIgA, α-amylase, and lysozyme concentrations. Posm and USG increased during dehydration and remained elevated after overnight fluid restriction (BML = 3.5% ± 0.3%, Posm = 297 ± 6 mosmol·kg–1, and USG = 1.026 ± 0.002; P < 0.001). Dehydration decreased SFR (67% at 3% BML, 70% at 0800 h; P < 0.01) and increased SIgA concentration, with no effect on SIgA secretion rate. SFR and SIgA responses remained unchanged in the CON trial. Dehydration did not affect α-amylase or lysozyme concentration but decreased secretion rates of α-amylase (44% at 3% BML, 78% at 0800 h; P < 0.01) and lysozyme (46% at 3% BML, 61% at 0800 h; P < 0.01), which were lower than in CON at these time points (P < 0.05). Rehydration returned all saliva variables to baseline. In conclusion, modest dehydration (~3% BML) decreased SFR, α-amylase, and lysozyme secretion rates. Whether the observed magnitude of decrease in saliva AMPs during dehydration compromises host defence remains to be shown.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Umberto Di Felice
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technologies, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Neil P. Walsh
- Extremes Research Group, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, UK
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23
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LaVoy EC, McFarlin BK, Simpson RJ. Immune Responses to Exercising in a Cold Environment. Wilderness Environ Med 2011; 22:343-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2011.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Papacosta E, Nassis GP. Saliva as a tool for monitoring steroid, peptide and immune markers in sport and exercise science. J Sci Med Sport 2011; 14:424-34. [PMID: 21474377 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 02/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Papacosta
- Loughborough University, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.
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25
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LEICHT CHRISTOFANDREAS, BISHOP NICOLETTECLAIRE, GOOSEY-TOLFREY VICTORIALOUISE. Mucosal Immune Responses to Treadmill Exercise in Elite Wheelchair Athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011; 43:1414-21. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31820ac959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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26
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Short highly intense exercise causes changes in salivary concentrations of hydrocortisone and secretory IgA. Bull Exp Biol Med 2011; 149:635-9. [PMID: 21165406 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-010-1012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The dynamics of salivary hydrocortisone during exercise depends on the professional status of the athlete. Hydrocortisone concentrations increase and those of secretory IgA decrease significantly during short-term highly intense exercise. Presumably, basal serum hydrocortisone level is the key factor in restoration of the secretory IgA concentration after exercise by inhibition of lymphocyte, macrophage, and monocyte functions through an increase in glucocorticoid level under the effect of physiological stressors.
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27
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The effects of two nights of sleep deprivation with or without energy restriction on immune indices at rest and in response to cold exposure. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 109:417-28. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1378-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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28
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Effects of a 30-km race upon salivary lactate correlation with blood lactate. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2006; 145:114-7. [PMID: 16893666 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2006.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2005] [Revised: 06/26/2006] [Accepted: 07/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Blood lactate has been used to determine the aerobic capacity and long distance performance. Recently, a new methodology has been suggested to supplant the invasive blood lactate techniques. Salivary lactate has received attention because it shows high correlation to blood lactate in progressive overload test. We evaluated the correlation between salivary and blood lactate during a long distance run and assessed possible changes in salivary lactate concentration. Fifteen expert marathon racers ran 30 km as fast as possible. Saliva and 25 muL of blood were collected at rest and at each 6 km for lactate determination. Blood lactate concentration increased in the 6th km and then remained constant until the end of the race. Salivary lactate increased after 18 km in relation to basal. We found high correlations between blood and saliva absolute lactate (r=0.772, p<0.05) and the blood lactate relative concentration corrected by protein (r=0.718, p<0.05). The highest correlation found between absolute and relative salivary lactate was r=0.994 (p<0.001). Our results show that it is possible to use salivary lactate with absolute values or relative protein concentration. In addition, salivary lactate showed a high correlation with blood lactate in endurance events.
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29
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Bishop NC, Walker GJ, Scanlon GA, Richards S, Rogers E. Salivary IgA Responses to Prolonged Intensive Exercise following Caffeine Ingestion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38:513-9. [PMID: 16540839 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000187412.47477.ee] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Prolonged, intensive exercise is associated with a reduction in concentration and secretion of salivary IgA (s-IgA). Saliva composition and secretion are under autonomic nervous system control, and caffeine ingestion, a widespread practice among athletes for its ergogenic properties, is associated with increased sympathetic nervous system activation. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of caffeine ingestion on s-IgA responses to prolonged, intensive exercise. METHODS In a randomized crossover design, 11 endurance-trained males cycled for 90 min at 70% VO2peak on two occasions, having ingested 6 mg x kg(-1) body mass of caffeine (CAF) or placebo (PLA) 1 h before exercise. Whole, unstimulated saliva samples were collected before treatment (baseline), preexercise, after 45 min of exercise (midexercise), immediately postexercise, and 1 h postexercise. Venous blood samples were collected from a subset of six of these subjects at baseline, preexercise, postexercise, and 1 h postexercise. RESULTS An initial pilot study found that caffeine ingestion had no effect on s-IgA concentration, secretion rate, or saliva flow rate at rest. Serum caffeine concentration was higher on CAF than PLA at preexercise, postexercise, and 1 h postexercise (P < 0.001). Plasma epinephrine concentration was higher on CAF than PLA at pre- and postexercise (P < 0.05). s-IgA concentration was higher on CAF than PLA at mid- and postexercise (P < 0.01), and s-IgA secretion rate was higher on CAF than PLA at midexercise only (P < 0.02). Caffeine ingestion did not affect saliva flow rate. Saliva alpha-amylase activity and secretion rate were higher on CAF than PLA (main effect for trial, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that caffeine ingestion before intensive exercise is associated with elevated s-IgA responses during exercise, which may be related to increases in sympathetic activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolette C Bishop
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.
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30
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Abstract
Athletes, military personnel, fire fighters, mountaineers and astronauts may be required to perform in environmental extremes (e.g. heat, cold, high altitude and microgravity). Exercising in hot versus thermoneutral conditions (where core temperature is > or = 1 degrees C higher in hot conditions) augments circulating stress hormones, catecholamines and cytokines with associated increases in circulating leukocytes. Studies that have clamped the rise in core temperature during exercise (by exercising in cool water) demonstrate a large contribution of the rise in core temperature in the leukocytosis and cytokinaemia of exercise. However, with the exception of lowered stimulated lymphocyte responses after exercise in the heat, and in exertional heat illness patients (core temperature > 40 degrees C), recent laboratory studies show a limited effect of exercise in the heat on neutrophil function, monocyte function, natural killer cell activity and mucosal immunity. Therefore, most of the available evidence does not support the contention that exercising in the heat poses a greater threat to immune function (vs thermoneutral conditions). From a critical standpoint, due to ethical committee restrictions, most laboratory studies have evoked modest core temperature responses (< 39 degrees C). Given that core temperature during exercise in the field often exceeds levels associated with fever and hyperthermia (approximately 39.5 degrees C) field studies may provide an opportunity to determine the effects of severe heat stress on immunity. Field studies may also provide insight into the possible involvement of immune modulation in the aetiology of exertional heat stroke (core temperature > 40.6 degrees C) and identify the effects of acclimatisation on neuroendocrine and immune responses to exercise-heat stress. Laboratory studies can provide useful information by, for example, applying the thermal clamp model to examine the involvement of the rise in core temperature in the functional immune modifications associated with prolonged exercise. Studies investigating the effects of cold, high altitude and microgravity on immunity and infection incidence are often hindered by extraneous stressors (e.g. isolation). Nevertheless, the available evidence does not support the popular belief that short- or long-term cold exposure, with or without exercise, suppresses immunity and increases infection incidence. In fact, controlled laboratory studies indicate immuno-stimulatory effects of cold exposure. Although some evidence shows that ascent to high altitude increases infection incidence, clear conclusions are difficult to make because of some overlap with the symptoms of acute mountain sickness. Studies have reported suppressed cell-mediated immunity in mountaineers at high altitude and in astronauts after re-entering the normal gravity environment; however, the impact of this finding on resistance to infection remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil P Walsh
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, UK.
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Ring C, Carroll D, Hoving J, Ormerod J, Harrison LK, Drayson M. Effects of competition, exercise, and mental stress on secretory immunity. J Sports Sci 2005; 23:501-8. [PMID: 16194997 DOI: 10.1080/02640410410001729955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that the psychological stress associated with competitive sports events may help to explain the increased susceptibility to respiratory infections due to reductions in secretory immunity. In the current study, we investigated the influence of competitive exercise and psychological stress on secretory immunoglobulin A (s-IgA). Salivary s-IgA and heart rate were measured in 62 healthy young recreationally active men at rest and, in a between-subjects design, following one of four 8-min tasks: mental arithmetic, cycling at workloads of 60 to 180 W (mean = 146 W), mental arithmetic while cycling, or competitive cycling. Mental arithmetic was associated with significant increases in s-IgA concentration (mean = 49 microg.min(-1)) and s-IgA secretion rate (mean = 25 microg.ml(-1)) compared with rest, while mental arithmetic combined with exercise was associated with a significant increase in s-IgA concentration only (mean = 124 microg.min(-1)). In contrast, competitive exercise and exercise alone did not influence s-IgA concentration or secretion rate. Heart rate increased modestly to mental arithmetic (mean = 7 beats.min(-1)) and substantially, and similarly, to the three exercise tasks (mean = 56(62 beats.min(-1)). The hypothesis that the psychological stress of competitive exercise contributes to increased susceptibility to infection via reductions in s-IgA requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Ring
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK.
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32
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Li TL, Gleeson M. The effects of carbohydrate supplementation during repeated bouts of prolonged exercise on saliva flow rate and immunoglobulin A. J Sports Sci 2005; 23:713-22. [PMID: 16195021 DOI: 10.1080/02640410400022151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of carbohydrate (CHO) feeding during different periods of two 90-min cycling bouts (the first bout began at 09:00?h and the second bout began at 13:30 h) at 60% maximal oxygen uptake(VO2max) on saliva flow rate and saliva immunoglobulin A (sIgA) responses to the second exercise bout. The study consisted of three investigations: carbohydrate supplementation during (1) the first hour of the recovery interval (CHO-REC), (2) during the first bout of exercise and (3) during the second bout of exercise. Each investigation included two trials completed in a counterbalanced order and separated by at least 4 days. Participants consumed a lemon-flavoured 10% w/v carbohydrate beverage or placebo (22 ml.kg-1 body mass) in the first hour of the recovery interval (n=8) and 500 ml just before exercise, followed by 250 ml every 20 min during exercise in the first (n=9) and second exercise bouts (n=9). Timed unstimulated saliva samples were collected at 10 min before exercise, after 48-50 min of exercise and during the last 2 min of exercise, at 1 h post exercise, 2 h post exercise (first exercise bout only), and 18 h post exercise (second exercise bout only). Venous blood samples were taken 5 min before exercise and immediately after exercise for both exercise bouts in all trials. The main findings of the present study were as follows. First, carbohydrate ingestion during both exercise bouts, but not during the recovery interval, better maintained plasma glucose concentrations and attenuated the increase in plasma adrenaline and cortisol concentrations after the second exercise bout compared with placebo. Second, carbohydrate feeding had no effect on saliva flow rate and sIgA secretion rate compared with placebo. Third, saliva flow rate and sIgA concentration returned to pre-exercise bout 1 values within 2 h in all trials. Fourth, there was no delayed effect of exercise on oral immunity. These findings suggest that carbohydrate ingestion during the first or second bout of exercise, but not during the recovery interval, is likely to better maintain plasma glucose concentrations and attenuate the responses of plasma stress hormones to a second exercise bout than ingestion of fluid alone. Two bouts of 90 min cycling at 60% VO2max on the same day appears to inhibit saliva flow rate during the second exercise bout but does not alter sIgA transcytosis. Our results show that carbohydrate ingestion during any period of two prolonged exercise bouts does not induce different effects on oral immunity compared with placebo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzai-Li Li
- Department of Sports and Leisure Studies, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan
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Francis JL, Gleeson M, Pyne DB, Callister R, Clancy RL. Variation of salivary immunoglobulins in exercising and sedentary populations. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37:571-8. [PMID: 15809554 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000158191.08331.04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study examined the nature of the variability in salivary immunoglobulin and albumin concentrations within an individual, between individuals, and between populations with differing levels of habitual physical activity. METHODS Fourteen elite swimmers, and 21 active and 18 sedentary individuals provided 12 saliva samples over a 30-d period. Group classifications were based on interviews, anthropometric measurements, and physical activity records. Symptoms of illness and physical activity data were recorded daily. Salivary IgA, IgG, and IgM were measured by ELISA, and albumin concentrations were measured by nephelometry. Variability was assessed using ANOVA procedures. RESULTS Elite swimmers, compared with active and sedentary individuals, had higher concentrations of salivary IgA (geometric mean=65 vs 32 and 40 mg.L, P=0.002) and greater variability in salivary IgA concentrations as individuals (P=0.007) and as a group (P=0.03). Salivary IgG variability in swimmers was also twofold greater than the other two groups (P=0.008). Salivary IgM and albumin variability were not significantly different between groups, but individual variability differed for swimmers and active individuals. The intraclass correlations for salivary IgA and IgG (but not for IgM or albumin) were 50% lower for swimmers than the other two groups (ICC for IgA: 20% swimmers vs 54% active and 46% sedentary individuals; ICC for IgG: 36 vs 59 and 57%). CONCLUSION The variability and fluctuation of salivary immunoglobulin concentrations were consistently greater in the elite swimmers, but multiple samples from individual swimmers were less correlated compared with participants with lower physical activity levels. These findings have implications for monitoring mucosal immune status within individuals and when comparing salivary immunoglobulin concentrations between groups with differing levels of physical fitness and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lynn Francis
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, AUSTRALIA.
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Laing SJ, Gwynne D, Blackwell J, Williams M, Walters R, Walsh NP. Salivary IgA response to prolonged exercise in a hot environment in trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 93:665-71. [PMID: 15778895 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-004-1270-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/14/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The aim of this study was to determine the effects of prolonged exercise in hot conditions on saliva IgA (s-IgA) responses in trained cyclists. On two occasions, in random order and separated by 1 week, 12 male cyclists cycled for 2 h on a stationary ergometer at 62 (3)% V(.)O(2 max) [194 (4) W; mean (SEM)], on one occasion (HOT: 30.3 degrees C, 76% RH) and on another occasion ( CONTROL 20.4 degrees C, 60% RH). Water was available ad-libitum. Venous blood samples and 2-min whole unstimulated saliva samples were collected at pre, post and 2 h post-exercise. The s-IgA concentration was determined using a sandwich-type ELISA. Exercising heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, rectal temperature, corrected body mass loss (P<0.01) and plasma cortisol (P<0.05) were greater during HOT. The decrease in plasma volume post-exercise was similar on both trials [HOT: -6.7 (1.1) and CONTROL -6.6 (1.3)%; P<0.01]. Saliva flow rate decreased post-exercise by 43% returning to pre-exercise levels by 2 h post-exercise (P<0.05) with no difference between trials. Saliva IgA concentration increased post-exercise (P<0.05) with no difference between trials. Saliva IgA secretion rate decreased post-exercise by 34% returning to pre-exercise levels by 2 h post-exercise (P<0.05) with no difference between trials. These data show that a prolonged bout of exercise results in a reduction in s-IgA secretion rate. Additionally, these data demonstrate that performing prolonged exercise in the heat, with ad libitum water intake, does not influence s-IgA responses to prolonged exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Laing
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor LL57 2PX, UK
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Walsh NP, Laing SJ, Oliver SJ, Montague JC, Walters R, Bilzon JLJ. Saliva Parameters as Potential Indices of Hydration Status during Acute Dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36:1535-42. [PMID: 15354035 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000139797.26760.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Firstly, to identify whether saliva flow rate, osmolality, and total protein are potential markers of hydration, we compared changes in these parameters with changes in plasma osmolality during progressive dehydration. Secondly, we compared the sensitivity of saliva parameters to track hydration changes with the sensitivity of urine osmolality. Thirdly, to test the hypothesis that dehydration, rather than neuroendocrine regulation, is responsible for the decrease in saliva flow rate during prolonged exercise, we compared flow rate and catecholamine responses to prolonged exercise with and without fluids. METHODS colon; Fifteen males (plasma osmolality 289 +/- 4 mOsmol x kg(-1); mean +/- SD) exercised (30 degrees C, 70% RH) with no fluid intake (NFI) until body mass loss (BML) of 1.1, 2.1, and 3.0% and on another occasion with fluid intake (FI) to offset losses. RESULTS colon; Plasma and urine osmolality increased during NFI (plasma osmolality 3.0% BML: 298 +/- 4 mOsmol x kg(-1); P < 0.01). Saliva flow rate decreased (P < 0.01), saliva total protein increased (P < 0.01), and saliva osmolality increased from preexercise (50 +/- 11 mOsmol x kg(-1)) to 3.0% BML (105 +/- 41 mOsmol x kg(-1)) during NFI (P < 0.01). Saliva osmolality, urine osmolality, and saliva total protein correlated strongly with plasma osmolality during dehydration (r 0.87, 0.83, and 0.91, respectively; P < 0.01). During the FI trial, saliva flow rate and osmolality remained unchanged. Plasma catecholamine concentration increased during exercise (P < 0.01) with no difference between trials. CONCLUSIONS colon; Saliva osmolality and total protein appear to be as sensitive as urine osmolality to track hydration changes during hypertonic-hypovolemia. These results also suggest that dehydration has a greater involvement in the decrease in saliva flow rate during prolonged exercise than neuroendocrine regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil P Walsh
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, United Kingdom.
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Walsh NP, Montague JC, Callow N, Rowlands AV. Saliva flow rate, total protein concentration and osmolality as potential markers of whole body hydration status during progressive acute dehydration in humans. Arch Oral Biol 2004; 49:149-54. [PMID: 14693209 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2003.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify whether saliva flow rate, total protein concentration and osmolality are sensitive non-invasive markers of whole body hydration status, we compared changes in these parameters with changes in body mass during progressive acute dehydration. DESIGN Twelve euhydrated males reported to the laboratory following an overnight fast and cycled on a stationary ergometer at 60% maximal oxygen uptake in an environmental chamber (30 degrees C and 70% RH) until progressive body mass loss (BML) of 1.1+/-0.0, 2.0+/-0.0 and 2.9+/-0.2%. After exercise, subjects were given a volume of carbohydrate electrolyte solution equivalent to 150% BML to consume within 1h. Unstimulated whole saliva samples were collected over a 2 min period into pre-weighed tubes at pre-exercise, 1.1, 2.0 and 2.9% BML and then at 75, 135 and 195 min post-exercise. RESULTS Saliva total protein concentration and osmolality increased and flow rate decreased (P<0.01) during dehydration. Saliva total protein concentration and osmolality correlated strongly with % BML during dehydration (mean r=0.97 and 0.94, respectively: P<0.01). The correlation for saliva total protein concentration with % BML was greater (P<0.05) than the correlation for saliva flow rate with % BML (mean r=-0.88: P<0.01) during dehydration. CONCLUSIONS These data show that changes in saliva total protein concentration and osmolality, and to a lesser extent flow rate, are strongly associated with changes in body mass during progressive acute dehydration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil P Walsh
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor LL57 2PX, UK.
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