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Pallarés Porcar S, Sánchez-Íñigo FJ, Nuñez-Corcuera B, Lozano Suárez J, Arca-Lafuente S, Moyano Cárdaba C, Fernandez Agudo A, de Alba-Gonzalez M, Ramis R, Galán-Madruga D, González-Caballero MDC, Briz V, Guevara-Hernandez S, de Vega Pastor ME, Sarigiannis D, Garcia Dos Santos S, Tarazona JV. Combination of toxicological and epidemiological approaches for estimating the health impact of atmospheric pollutants. A proof of concept for NO 2. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 363:142883. [PMID: 39025310 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regular monitoring of the air pollutant nitrogen dioxide (NO2), an indicator for traffic-related emissions, is a priority in urban environments. The health impacts associated with NO2 exposure are the result of a combination of factors, including concentration, duration of exposure, and interactions with other pollutants. WHO has established air quality guidelines based on epidemiological studies. OBJECTIVE This study develops a new concept "Health Impact Pathways (HIPs)" using adversity as a probabilistic indicator of health effects. For this purpose, it integrates available toxicological and epidemiological information, using Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs), in order to understand chemical-biological interactions and their consequences on health. METHODS Literature review and meta-analysis of toxicological data supported by expert judgment were performed to establish: a) adversity pathways, b) quantitative criteria for scoring the observed toxicological effects (adversity indicators), c) NO2 exposure - adversity relationship for both long-term (1-36 months) and shortterm (1-7 days). The NO2 daily concentrations from January 2001 to December 2022, were obtained from Madrid city Air Quality network monitoring database. Adversity levels were compared with relative risk levels for all-cause and respiratory mortality estimated using linear equations from WHO 2021 guidelines. RESULTS Non-linear relations were obtained for all long- and short-term NO2 related adversity indicators; for long-term effects, the best fitting was obtained with a modified Haber's law model with an exponential coefficient for the exposure time of 0.25. Estimations are presented for a set of case studies for Madrid city, covering temporal and spatial variability. A clear improvement trend along the two decades was observed, as well as high inter- and intra-station variability; the adversity indicators provided integrated information on the temporal and spatial evolution of population level risk. DISCUSSION The proposed HIP conceptual approach offers promising advances for integrating experimental and epidemiological data. The next step is linking the concentration-adversity relationship with population health impacts through probability estimations, the preliminary estimations confirm the need for assessing independently different population groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Pallarés Porcar
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Sánchez-Íñigo
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | - Beatriz Nuñez-Corcuera
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | - Joaquín Lozano Suárez
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | - Sonia Arca-Lafuente
- Viral Hepatitis Reference and Research Laboratory, National Center of Microbiology, Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Clara Moyano Cárdaba
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | - Ana Fernandez Agudo
- Risk Assessment Unit. National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes de Alba-Gonzalez
- Risk Assessment Unit. National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Rebeca Ramis
- Department of Epidemiology of Chronic Diseases, National Center for Epidemiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Galán-Madruga
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | | | - Verónica Briz
- Viral Hepatitis Reference and Research Laboratory, National Center of Microbiology, Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Susana Guevara-Hernandez
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | | | - Denis Sarigiannis
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Chemical Engineering, Environmental Engineering Laboratory, University Campus, Thessaloniki, 54124, Greece; HERACLES Research Center on the Exposome and Health, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, Balkan Center, Bldg. B, 10th km, Thessaloniki-Thermi, Greece; University School of Advanced Study IUSS, Piazza della Vittoria 15, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Saul Garcia Dos Santos
- Department of Atmospheric Pollution, National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid. Spain
| | - Jose V Tarazona
- Risk Assessment Unit. National Environmental Health Center (CNSA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
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Mayntz SP, Mohamed RA, Mejldal A, Møller JJK, Lindholt JS, Diederichsen ACP, Frohn LM, Lambrechtsen J. Statistical Analysis Plan for the AIRCARD Study: Individual Long-Term Air and Noise Pollution Exposure and Cardiovascular Disease Incidence and Mortality - A Prospective Cohort Study Utilizing DANCAVAS and VIVA Screening Trials. Cardiology 2024:1-7. [PMID: 38952116 DOI: 10.1159/000539459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The AIRCARD study is designed to investigate the relationship between long-term exposure to air and noise pollution and cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality. We aim to conduct a robust prospective cohort analysis assessing the cumulative and differential impacts of air and noise pollution exposure on cardiovascular disease and mortality. This study will adjust for relevant confounders, including traditional cardiovascular risk factors, socioeconomic indicators, and lipid-lowering agents. METHODS This prospective cohort study will include 27,022 male participants aged 65-74, recruited from the two large Danish DANCAVAS and VIVA trials, both population-based randomized, multicentered, clinically controlled studies. We will assess long-term exposure to air pollutants using the state-of-the-art DEHM/UBM/AirGIS modeling system and noise pollution through the Nord2000 and SoundPLAN models, covering data from 1979 to 2019. This statistical analysis plan is strictly formulated to predefine the analytical approach for all outcomes and key study variables before data access. The primary analysis will utilize Cox proportional hazards models, adjusted for confounders identified in our cohort (age, body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, smoking status, family history of heart disease, socioeconomic factors, and lipid-lowering agents). This statistical analysis plan further includes Spearman rank correlation to explore inter-pollutant associations. CONCLUSION The AIRCARD study addresses global concerns about the impact of air and noise pollution on cardiovascular disease. This research is important for understanding how the pollutants contribute to cardiovascular disease. We aim to provide insights into this area, emphasizing the need for public health measures to mitigate pollution exposure. Our goal is to provide policymakers and healthcare professionals with information on the role of environmental factors in cardiovascular health that could influence global strategies to reduce the cardiovascular disease burden associated with pollution. The design of this SAP ensures transparency and verifiability, considering the complexities of evaluating environmental health impacts over an extended period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Peronard Mayntz
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Cardiology Research Unit, Odense University Hospital, Svendborg, Denmark
| | - Roda Abdulkadir Mohamed
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Cardiology Research Unit, Odense University Hospital, Svendborg, Denmark
| | - Anna Mejldal
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jens-Jakob Kjer Møller
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jes Sanddal Lindholt
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Surgery, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Axel Cosmos Pyndt Diederichsen
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Cardiology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Lise Marie Frohn
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Jess Lambrechtsen
- OPEN, Open Patient data Explorative Network, Odense University Hospital, Region of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Cardiology Research Unit, Odense University Hospital, Svendborg, Denmark
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Nieuwenhuijsen M, de Nazelle A, Garcia-Aymerich J, Khreis H, Hoffmann B. Shaping urban environments to improve respiratory health: recommendations for research, planning, and policy. THE LANCET. RESPIRATORY MEDICINE 2024; 12:247-254. [PMID: 37866374 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(23)00329-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Urban areas carry a large burden of acute (infectious) and chronic respiratory diseases due to environmental conditions such as high levels of air pollution and high population densities. Car-dominated cities often lack walkable areas, which reduces opportunities for physical activity that are fundamentally important for healthy lungs. The already restricted amount of green space available-with often poorly selected plants-could produce pollen and subsequently provoke or worsen allergic diseases. Less affluent neighbourhoods often carry a larger respiratory disease burden. A multisectoral approach with more diverse policy measures and urban innovations is needed to reduce air pollution (eg, low emission zones), to increase public space for walking and cycling (eg, low traffic neighbourhoods, superblocks, 15-minute cities, and car-free cities), and to develop green cities (eg, planting of low-allergy trees). Stricter EU air quality guidelines can push these transformations to improve the respiratory health of citizens. Advocacy by medical respiratory societies can also make an important contribution to such changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Nieuwenhuijsen
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Audrey de Nazelle
- Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Judith Garcia-Aymerich
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Haneen Khreis
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Public Health Modelling Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Barbara Hoffmann
- Centre for Health and Society, Institute for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Heinrich-Heine-University of Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany
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Malmqvist E, Andersen ZJ, Spadaro J, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Katsouyanni K, Forsberg B, Forastiere F, Hoffmann B. Urgent Call to Ensure Clean Air For All in Europe, Fight Health Inequalities and Oppose Delays in Action. Int J Public Health 2024; 69:1606958. [PMID: 38362306 PMCID: PMC10868403 DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2024.1606958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ebba Malmqvist
- Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Zorana Jovanovic Andersen
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Joseph Spadaro
- Spadaro Environment Research Consultants (SERC), Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Mark Nieuwenhuijsen
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Bertil Forsberg
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Barbara Hoffmann
- Institute for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Centre for Health and Society, Medical Faculty, University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Turner MC, Andersen ZJ, Neira M, Krzyzanowski M, Malmqvist E, González Ortiz A, Kiesewetter G, Katsouyanni K, Brunekreef B, Melén E, Ljungman P, Tolotto M, Forastiere F, Dendale P, Price R, Bakke O, Reichert S, Hoek G, Pershagen G, Peters A, Querol X, Gerometta A, Samoli E, Markevych I, Basthiste R, Khreis H, Pant P, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Sacks JD, Hansen K, Lymes T, Stauffer A, Fuller GW, Boogaard H, Hoffmann B. Clean air in Europe for all! Taking stock of the proposed revision to the ambient air quality directives: a joint ERS, HEI and ISEE workshop report. Eur Respir J 2023; 62:2301380. [PMID: 37827574 PMCID: PMC10894647 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.01380-2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Ambient air pollution is a major public health concern and comprehensive new legislation is currently being considered to improve air quality in Europe. The European Respiratory Society (ERS), Health Effects Institute (HEI), and International Society for Environmental Epidemiology (ISEE) organised a joint meeting on May 24, 2023 in Brussels, Belgium, to review and critically evaluate the latest evidence on the health effects of air pollution and discuss ongoing revisions of the European Ambient Air Quality Directives (AAQDs). A multi-disciplinary expert group of air pollution and health researchers, patient and medical societies, and policy representatives participated. This report summarises key discussions at the meeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle C Turner
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Maria Neira
- World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Gregor Kiesewetter
- International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria
| | | | | | - Erik Melén
- Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | | | - Paul Dendale
- European Society of Cardiology (ESC), Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Richard Price
- European Cancer Organisation (ECO), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ole Bakke
- Standing Committee of European Doctors (CPME), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sibylle Reichert
- International Association of Mutual Benefit Societies (AIM), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Gerard Hoek
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Annette Peters
- Helmholtz München - German Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- IBE, Medical Faculty, Ludwig Maximilians Universität, Munich, Germany
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xavier Querol
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Evangelia Samoli
- Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Iana Markevych
- Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Health and Quality of Life in a Green and Sustainable Environment, SRIPD, Medical University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | | | - Haneen Khreis
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Mark Nieuwenhuijsen
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jason D Sacks
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Kjeld Hansen
- European Lung Foundation, Sheffield, UK
- Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Gary W Fuller
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Peters A, Herr C, Bolte G, Heutelbeck A, Hornberg C, Kraus T, Lakes T, Matzarakis A, Novak D, Reifegerste D, Traidl-Hoffmann C, Zeeb H, Schneider A, Hoffmann B. [Health protection and climate change require ambitious limit values for air pollutants in Europe : Opinion on the revision of the Directive on Air Quality and Clean Air for Europe of the Environmental Public Health commission of the Robert Koch Institute and the Federal Environment Agency]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2023; 66:1030-1034. [PMID: 37603135 PMCID: PMC10465619 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-023-03755-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Based on scientific findings, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended stricter guideline values for air quality in 2021. Significant reductions in the annual mean values of particulate matter (particle size 2.5 µm or smaller, PM2.5) and long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) were put forward. The risk of mortality already increases above the WHO guideline values, as shown in studies investigating low concentrations of air pollutants. In Germany, the 2021 WHO guideline values for PM2.5 and NO2 were clearly exceeded in 2022.In this position paper we give the following recommendations for the European Air Quality Directive: (1) set binding limit values according to WHO 2021, (2) apply the limit values to the whole of Europe, (3) continue and expand the established country-based monitoring networks, (4) expand air quality measurements for ultrafine particles and soot particles, and (5) link air pollution control and climate protection measures.Stricter limits for air pollutants require societal and political changes in areas such as mobility, energy use and generation, and urban and spatial planning. Implementation according to WHO 2021 would lead to a net economic benefit of 38 billion euros per year.Ambitious limit values for air pollutants also have an impact on climate change mitigation and its health impacts. The Environmental Public Health commission concludes that more ambitious limit values are crucial to enable effective health protection in Germany and calls for air pollutant limit values in line with the 2021 WHO recommendations to become binding in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Peters
- Institut für Epidemiologie, Helmholtz Zentrum München - Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt (GmbH), Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764, Neuherberg, Deutschland.
- Lehrstuhl für Epidemiologie, Institut für Medizinische Informationsverarbeitung, Biometrie und Epidemiologie, Medizinische Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Deutschland.
| | - Caroline Herr
- Bayerisches Landesamt für Gesundheit und Lebensmittelsicherheit, München, Deutschland
| | - Gabriele Bolte
- Institut für Public Health und Pflegeforschung, Abteilung Sozialepidemiologie, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Deutschland
| | - Astrid Heutelbeck
- Institut für Arbeits‑, Sozial- und Umweltmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Jena, Deutschland
| | - Claudia Hornberg
- Medizinische Fakultät OWL, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Deutschland
| | - Thomas Kraus
- Institut für Arbeits‑, Sozial- und Umweltmedizin, Uniklinik RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Deutschland
| | - Tobia Lakes
- Geographisches Institut, Angewandte Geoinformationsverarbeitung, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Deutschland
| | - Andreas Matzarakis
- Zentrum für Medizin-Meteorologische Forschung, Deutscher Wetterdienst, Freiburg, Deutschland
| | - Dennis Novak
- Instituts- und Poliklinik für Arbeits‑, Sozial- und Umweltmedizin, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Klinikum, München, Deutschland
| | - Doreen Reifegerste
- Fakultät für Gesundheitswissenschaften, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Deutschland
| | - Claudia Traidl-Hoffmann
- Medizinische Fakultät - Lehrstuhl für Umweltmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Augsburg, Augsburg, Deutschland
| | - Hajo Zeeb
- Leibniz-Institut für Präventionsforschung und Epidemiologie - BIPS und Universität Bremen, Bremen, Deutschland
| | - Alexandra Schneider
- Institut für Epidemiologie, Helmholtz Zentrum München - Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt (GmbH), Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764, Neuherberg, Deutschland
| | - Barbara Hoffmann
- Institut für Arbeits‑, Sozial- und Umweltmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Deutschland
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van Daalen KR, Tonne C, Borrell C, Nilsson M, Lowe R. Approaching unsafe limits: climate-related health inequities within and beyond Europe. THE LANCET REGIONAL HEALTH. EUROPE 2023; 31:100683. [PMID: 37520669 PMCID: PMC10372306 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Cathryn Tonne
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carme Borrell
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Agència de Salut Pùblica de Barcelona (ASPB), Barcelona, Spain
- Sant Pau Biomedical Research Institute (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Nilsson
- Department of Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Rachel Lowe
- Barcelona Supercomputing Center (BSC), Barcelona, Spain
- Centre on Climate Change and Planetary Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
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