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Facile One-Step Synthesis of Nickel Sulphide Nanoparticles Decorated Poly (Acrylic Acid) Coated Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube for Detection of Tenofovir in Human Urine. Electrocatalysis (N Y) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12678-022-00784-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Paul A, Dhamu VN, Muthukumar S, Prasad S. E.P.A.S.S: Electroanalytical Pillbox Assessment Sensor System, A Case Study Using Metformin Hydrochloride. Anal Chem 2022; 94:10617-10625. [PMID: 35867902 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c00611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Adulteration of medications is an emerging and significant threat to human health and well-being, even though adulterants are still often not considered seriously in clinical or forensic toxicology. Screening of drug adulterations is a major challenge and concern for regulatory authorities worldwide. Metformin hydrochloride, an important drug to treat diabetes, is found to be adulterated worldwide and a major reason to worry about the health and safety procedure. We have demonstrated a first-of-a-kind electrochemical biomedical device utilizing exfoliated graphene oxide (GO)─Nafion-modified customized gold screen-printed electrodes (spiral electrochemical notification-coupled electrode, SENCE), driven by electrochemical adsorptive stripping voltammetry, to identify the trace level adulteration in metformin. The GO-Nafion-SPE interface has been characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, and Fourier transform infrared. Custom-made screen-printed SENCEs have been functionalized with GO nanoparticles (transducer) to obtain a fingerprint signal response of metformin using differential pulse voltammetry. A linear calibrated dose response has been obtained with n = 3 repetitions with a low limit of detection of 10 ppm for metformin. We have used the sensing response as a function of adulteration, and it is extensively supported by rigorous statistical analysis along with the help of the machine learning tool. This is a first-of-its-kind IoT-enabled electrochemical sensor and analysis platform that can detect drug adulteration as a low, medium, and high output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anirban Paul
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Vikram Narayanan Dhamu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Sriram Muthukumar
- EnLiSense LLC, 1813 Audubon Pondway, Allen, Texas 75013, United States
| | - Shalini Prasad
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States.,EnLiSense LLC, 1813 Audubon Pondway, Allen, Texas 75013, United States
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Roadside Drug Testing Approaches. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26113291. [PMID: 34072538 PMCID: PMC8199318 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to present an overview of roadside drug testing, driving enforcement, and drunk/drug driving detection around the world. Drunk and drug driving is a severe problem, not only in the UAE, but also around the world. This has important implications for road safety as drunk or drug driving may increase the chances of a driver’s involvement in a road crash when compared to a drug-free driver. Recently, due to increases in drug-impaired drivers’ crash involvement, many mobile roadside drug testing devices have been introduced to the market. These devices use oral fluid, urine or blood matrices. These are on-the-spot tests, which are easy to use and are applied by law enforcement agencies and the public. Law enforcement agencies most commonly use oral fluid to detect the presence of illicit drugs in drivers. This review discusses all the available devices in the market used by the authorities. It also describes the type of drugs widely abused by drivers along with behavioral testing methods. The different types of matrices used for roadside drug testing are also evaluated. Sample collection, storage, and pre-treatment methods are discussed, followed by the confirmatory analysis of positive samples. This article will significantly help law enforcement agencies compare and evaluate all the reliable roadside testing devices and new emerging confirmatory devices available to them in the market. This will help them make an informed decision on which device to adapt to their individual needs.
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Hamidi S. Recent Progresses in Sensitive Determination of Drugs of Abuse by Capillary Electrophoresis. CURR ANAL CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1573411015666190115153531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:
Today, “drugs of abuse” pose serious social problems such as many crimes,
medical treatment costs, and economic repercussions. Several worldwide clinical laboratories use analytical
separation methods to analyze their patient samples for drugs and poisons. In this way, they
provide qualitative and quantitative data on the substances in various biological matrices (e.g., urine,
plasma or serum, saliva, and breath).
Methods:
An extensive review of the published articles indicates that the use of Capillary Electrophoresis
(CE) coupled with sensitivity enhancing methods is a very attractive area of interest in the
assay of drugs of abuse.
Results:
This review was prepared to have a comprehensive study on applications of sensitivity enhancing
methods on the determination of drugs of abuse especially from 2007 to present. The sample
preconcentration approaches almost address all methods from online preconcentration (both electrophoretic
and chromatographic-based methods) to offline preconcentration. Furthermore, detection
system modification and capillary column fabrications were investigated in order to increase the detection
sensitivity of complex samples in CE.
Conclusion:
The present review summarizes the most recent developments in the detection of drugs
of abuse using CE. Although CE still has a limitation in sensitive detection, several publications in
recent years have proposed valuable methods to overcome this problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samin Hamidi
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Reisinger A, Rabensteiner J, Hackl G. Diagnosis of acute intoxications in critically ill patients: focus on biomarkers - part 2: markers for specific intoxications. Biomarkers 2020; 25:112-125. [PMID: 32011177 DOI: 10.1080/1354750x.2020.1725787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
In medical intensive care units, acute intoxications contribute to a large proportion of all patients. Epidemiology and a basic overview on this topic were presented in part one. The purpose of this second part regarding toxicological biomarkers in the ICU setting focuses on specific poisons and toxins. Following the introduction of anion and osmol gap in part one, it's relevance in toxic alcohols and other biomarkers for these poisonings are presented within this publication. Furthermore, the role of markers in the blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluid for several intoxications is evaluated. Specific details are presented, amongst others, for cardiovascular drug poisoning, paracetamol (acetaminophen), ethanol, pesticides, ricin and yew tree intoxications. Detailed biomarkers and therapeutic decision tools are shown for carbon monoxide (CO) and cyanide (CN-) poisoning. Also, biomarkers in environmental toxicological situations such as mushroom poisoning and scorpion stings are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Reisinger
- Intensive Care Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Jasmin Rabensteiner
- Clinical Institute of Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Gerald Hackl
- Intensive Care Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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Reisinger A, Rabensteiner J, Hackl G. Diagnosis of acute intoxications in critically ill patients: focus on biomarkers - part 1: epidemiology, methodology and general overview. Biomarkers 2019; 25:9-19. [PMID: 31735069 DOI: 10.1080/1354750x.2019.1694994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Acute intoxications account for a significant proportion of the patient population in intensive care units and sedative medications, ethanol, illicit drugs, inhalable poisons and mixed intoxications are the most common causes. The aim of this article is to describe biomarkers for screening and diagnosis of acute intoxications in critically ill patients. For this purpose, a survey of the relevant literature was conducted, and guidelines, case reports, expert assessments, and scientific publications were reviewed. In critical care, it should always be attempted to identify and quantify the poison or toxin with the assistance of enzyme immunoassay (EIA), chromatography, and mass spectrometry techniques and this section is critically appraised in this publication. The principles for anion gap, osmol gap and lactate gap and their usage in intoxications is shown. Basic rules in test methodology and pre-analytics are reviewed. Biomarkers in general are presented in part one and biomarkers for specific intoxications including ethanol, paracetamol, cardiovascular drugs and many others are presented in part two of these publications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Reisinger
- Intensive Care Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Jasmin Rabensteiner
- Clinical Institute of Medical and Chemical Laboratory Diagnostics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Gerald Hackl
- Intensive Care Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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[Acute intoxications: markers for screening, diagnosis and therapy monitoring]. Med Klin Intensivmed Notfmed 2019; 114:302-312. [PMID: 30944942 DOI: 10.1007/s00063-019-0566-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Acute poisonings account for a significant proportion of the patient population presenting to intensive care units, whereby mixed drug overdoses and prescription drug overdoses predominate. The aim of this article was to describe indications for screening, diagnosis and therapy monitoring in acute overdoses in the intensive care unit. To conduct this work, a literature search was carried out and a review was written based on guidelines, case reports, expert opinions and scientific publications. Toxidromes are a useful tool for classification of clinical characteristics when the causative agent is initially unknown. Especially in critical care medicine, identifying and quantifying of the causative toxin by enzyme immunoassays, chromatography and mass spectrometry should be attempted. Intensive care treatment of patients with acute overdoses includes not only monitoring and support of vital functions but also methods for primary and secondary elimination of toxins. The indication for the use of extracorporeal procedures should be carefully evaluated and the method should be chosen based on protein binding and molecular size. Lipid emulsion therapy, high-dose insulin euglycaemia therapy and hyperbaric oxygenation are also increasingly used.
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Liu J, Tang W, Meng X, Zhan L, Xu W, Nie Z, Wang Z. Improving the Performance of the Mini 2000 Mass Spectrometer with a Triboelectric Nanogenerator Electrospray Ionization Source. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:12229-12234. [PMID: 31459297 PMCID: PMC6645661 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b01777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Balancing the contradiction between portability and analytical performances of a miniaturized mass spectrometer is vital to extend its on-site applications. In this study, triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG)-driven ion sources were coupled with our home-built Mini 2000 system and applied to the analyses of different samples. Compared with the conventional direct current (DC) nanoelectrospray ionization (nanoESI) source, the ion intensity of the TENG-nanoESI miniature mass spectrometer was improved by ∼3 times. Moreover, maybe due to the different pathways of ion formation in comparison with DC electrospray, TENG electrospray is shown to reduce the salt suppression effect during ionization. With these figures of merit, the direct detection of reserpine in saliva was demonstrated using the TENG-Mini 2000 system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianli Liu
- School
of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Wei Tang
- Beijing
Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xiangzhi Meng
- School
of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Lingpeng Zhan
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory for Analytical
Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute
of Chemistry, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Wei Xu
- School
of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zongxiu Nie
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory for Analytical
Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute
of Chemistry, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zhonglin Wang
- Beijing
Institute of Nanoenergy and Nanosystems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100083, China
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
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Busardò FP, Pichini S, Pellegrini M, Montana A, Lo Faro AF, Zaami S, Graziano S. Correlation between Blood and Oral Fluid Psychoactive Drug Concentrations and Cognitive Impairment in Driving under the Influence of Drugs. Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 16:84-96. [PMID: 28847293 PMCID: PMC5771389 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666170828162057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects of drugs on driving performance should be checked with drug concentration in the brain and at the same time with the evaluation of both the behavioural and neurophysiological effects. The best accessible indicator of this information is the concentration of the drug and/or metabolites in blood and, to a certain extent, oral fluid. We sought to review international studies on correlation between blood and oral fluid drug concentrations, neurological correlates and cognitive impairment in driving under the influence of drugs. METHODS Relevant scientific articles were identified from PubMed, Cochrane Central, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, EMBASE up to April 2017. RESULTS Up to 2010, no epidemiological studies were available on this matter and International scientists suggested that even minimal amounts of parent drugs in blood and oral fluid could affect driving impairment. More recently, epidemiological data, systematic reviews and meta-analysis on drugged drivers allowed the suggestion of impairment concentration limits for the most common illicit drugs. These values were obtained comparing driving disability induced by psychotropic drugs with that of established blood alcohol limits. Differently from ethyl alcohol where both detection methods and concentration limits have been well established even with inhomogeneity of ranges within different countries, in case of drugs of abuse no official cut-offs have yet been established, nor any standardized analytical protocols. CONCLUSION Multiple aspects of driving performance can be differently affected by illicit drugs, and even if for few of them some dose/concentration dependent impairment has been reported, a wider knowledge on concentration/impairment relationship is still missing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Pellegrini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Angelo Montana
- Department “G.F. Ingrassia” – University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | | | - Simona Zaami
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Graziano
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Zheng Y, Sparve E, Bergström M. A simple validated multi-analyte method for detecting drugs in oral fluid by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:1001-1008. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yufang Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Drug Abuse; Unilabs AB; Eskilstuna Sweden
| | - Erik Sparve
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Drug Abuse; Unilabs AB; Eskilstuna Sweden
| | - Mats Bergström
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Drug Abuse; Unilabs AB; Eskilstuna Sweden
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11
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12
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Alternative matrices for therapeutic drug monitoring of immunosuppressive agents using LC-MS/MS. Bioanalysis 2016; 7:1037-58. [PMID: 25966013 DOI: 10.4155/bio.15.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunosuppressive drugs used in solid organ transplants typically have narrow therapeutic windows and high intra- and intersubject variability. To ensure satisfactory exposure, therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) plays a pivotal role in any successful posttransplant maintenance therapy. Currently, recommendations for optimum immunosuppressant concentrations are based on blood/plasma measurements. However, they introduce many disadvantages, including poor prediction of allograft survival and toxicity, a weak correlation with drug concentrations at the site of action and the invasive nature of the sample collection. Thus, alternative matrices have been investigated. This paper reviews tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods used for the quantification of immunosuppressant drugs utilizing nonconventional matrices, namely oral fluids, fingerprick blood and intracellular and intratissue sampling. The advantages, disadvantages and clinical application of such alternative mediums are discussed. Additionally, sample extraction techniques and basic chromatography information regarding these methods are presented in tabulated form.
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13
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Erstdiagnose und Erstbehandlungen von Vergiftungen. Med Klin Intensivmed Notfmed 2013; 108:459-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00063-013-0223-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Vindenes V, Lund H, Andresen W, Gjerde H, Ikdahl S, Christophersen A, Øiestad E. Detection of drugs of abuse in simultaneously collected oral fluid, urine and blood from Norwegian drug drivers. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 219:165-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2011] [Revised: 12/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Gripenberg-Abdon J, Elgán TH, Wallin E, Shaafati M, Beck O, Andréasson S. Measuring substance use in the club setting: a feasibility study using biochemical markers. SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT PREVENTION AND POLICY 2012; 7:7. [PMID: 22321198 PMCID: PMC3295681 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-7-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background During the last few decades the use of club drugs (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines) has been of increased concern in nightlife settings. Traditionally, surveys have been used to estimate the use of club drugs, however, they mostly rely on self-reports which may not be accurate. Recent advances have allowed for readily accessible drug testing methods such as oral fluid drug testing. Nevertheless, research using oral fluid sampling to measure the frequency of drug use in the club environment is scarce. The objective of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of measuring the frequency of alcohol and drug use among Swedish clubbers using breath alcohol and oral fluid drug testing. Method The setting was a 40 hour electronic music dance event (EMDE) on a cruise ship on the Baltic Sea, departing from Sweden, with 875 passengers. Groups of participants at the EMDE were randomly invited to participate. Data were collected with face-to-face and self-administered questionnaires. Further, oral fluid samples were collected to determine illicit drug use, and blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels were measured using a breath analyzer. Results A total of 422 passengers were asked to participate in the study whereof 21 declined (5.0% refusal rate). Of the 401 study participants (accounting for 45.8% of all attendees), 5 declined oral fluid drug testing. Results show that there was a discrepancy between self-reported and actual drug use as 10.1% of the participants were positive on illicit drug use (amphetamines, ecstasy/MDMA, cannabis, cocaine), while only 3.7% of the participants reported drug use during the last 48 hours. The average BAC level was 0.10% and 23.7% had BAC levels ≥ 0.15%, while 5.9% had levels below the detection limit. The mean BAC levels for the illicit drug users were significantly higher (p = 0.004) than for non-drug users (0.13% vs. 0.10%). Self-reported AUDIT-C scores (using a threshold of ≥ 5 for men and ≥ 4 for women) revealed that 76.0% of the men and 80.7% of the women had risky alcohol consumption patterns. Conclusion This study indicates that it is feasible to conduct breath alcohol and oral fluid drug testing in a Swedish club setting.
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Milman G, Schwope DM, Gorelick DA, Huestis MA. Cannabinoids and metabolites in expectorated oral fluid following controlled smoked cannabis. Clin Chim Acta 2012; 413:765-70. [PMID: 22285315 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2012.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2011] [Revised: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND ∆(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in oral fluid (OF) implies cannabis intake, but eliminating passive exposure and improving interpretation of test results requires additional research. METHODS Ten adult cannabis users smoked ad libitum one 6.8% THC cigarette. Expectorated OF was collected for up to 22 h, and analyzed within 24h of collection. THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), cannabidiol, and cannabinol were quantified by 2-dimensional-GCMS. RESULTS Eighty specimens were analyzed; 6 could not be collected due to dry mouth. THC was quantifiable in 95.2%, cannabidiol in 69.3%, cannabinol in 62.3%, and THCCOOH in 94.7% of specimens. Highest THC, cannabidiol, and cannabinol concentrations were 22370, 1000, and 1964 μg/l, respectively, 0.25 h after the start of smoking; THCCOOH peaked within 2h (up to 560 ng/l). Concentrations 6h after smoking were THC (0.9-90.4 μg/l) and THCCOOH (17.0-151 ng/l) (8 of 9 positive for both); only 4 were positive for cannabidiol (0.5-2.4 μg/l) and cannabinol (1.0-3.0 μg/l). By 22 h, there were 4 THC (0.4-10.3 μg/l), 5 THCCOOH (6.0-24.0 ng/l), 1 cannabidiol (0.3 μg/l), and no cannabinol positive specimens. CONCLUSIONS THCCOOH in OF suggests no passive contamination, and CBD and CBN suggest recent cannabis smoking. Seventeen alternative cutoffs were evaluated to meet the needs of different drug testing programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garry Milman
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Milman G, Barnes AJ, Schwope DM, Schwilke EW, Goodwin RS, Kelly DL, Gorelick DA, Huestis MA. Cannabinoids and metabolites in expectorated oral fluid after 8 days of controlled around-the-clock oral THC administration. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 401:599-607. [PMID: 21637933 PMCID: PMC3842229 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5066-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2011] [Revised: 04/20/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Oral fluid (OF) is an increasingly accepted matrix for drug testing programs, but questions remain about its usefulness for monitoring cannabinoids. Expectorated OF specimens (n = 360) were obtained from 10 adult daily cannabis smokers before, during, and after 37 20-mg oral Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) doses over 9 days to characterize cannabinoid disposition in this matrix. Specimens were extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with electron-impact ionization for THC, 11-hydroxy-THC, cannabidiol, and cannabinol, and negative chemical ionization for 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH). Linear ranges for THC, 11-hydroxy-THC, and cannabidiol were 0.25-50 ng/mL; cannabinol 1-50 ng/mL; and THCCOOH 5-500 pg/mL. THCCOOH was the most prevalent analyte in 344 specimens (96.9%), with concentrations up to 1,390.3 pg/mL. 11-hydroxy-THC, cannabidiol, and cannabinol were detected in 1, 1, and 3 specimens, respectively. THC was detected in only 13.8% of specimens. The highest THC concentrations were obtained at admission (median 1.4 ng/mL, range 0.3-113.6) from previously self-administered smoked cannabis. A total of 2.5 and 3.7% of specimens were THC-positive at the recommended Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2 ng/mL) and Driving Under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines (DRUID) (1 ng/mL) confirmation cutoffs, respectively. THC is currently the only analyte for monitoring cannabis exposure in OF; however, these data indicate chronic therapeutic oral THC administration and illicit oral THC use are unlikely to be identified with current guidelines. Measurement of THCCOOH may improve the detection and interpretation of OF cannabinoid tests and minimize the possibility of OF contamination from passive inhalation of cannabis smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garry Milman
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Allan J. Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - David M. Schwope
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Eugene W. Schwilke
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Robert S. Goodwin
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Deana L. Kelly
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Catonsville, MD 21228, USA
| | - David A. Gorelick
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Room 05A-721, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Kataoka H, Saito K. Recent advances in SPME techniques in biomedical analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2011; 54:926-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2010.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/09/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Recent advances of liquid chromatography–(tandem) mass spectrometry in clinical and forensic toxicology. Clin Biochem 2011; 44:54-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Revised: 08/04/2010] [Accepted: 08/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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21
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Wang IT, Feng YT, Chen CY. Determination of 17 illicit drugs in oral fluid using isotope dilution ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry with three atmospheric pressure ionizations. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:3095-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Revised: 09/19/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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22
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Sergi M, Compagnone D, Curini R, D'Ascenzo G, Del Carlo M, Napoletano S, Risoluti R. Micro-solid phase extraction coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of stimulants, hallucinogens, ketamine and phencyclidine in oral fluids. Anal Chim Acta 2010; 675:132-7. [PMID: 20800724 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2010.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2010] [Revised: 07/14/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A confirmatory method for the determination of illicit drugs based on micro-solid phase extraction with modified tips, made of a functionalized fiberglass with apolar chains of octadecylsilane into monolithic structure, has been developed in this study. Drugs belonging to different chemical classes, such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, methylenedioxyamphetamine, methylenedioxyethylamphetamine, methylenedioxymethylamphetamine, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ketamine, mescaline, phencyclidine and psilocybine were analyzed. The quantitation was performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and the analytes were detected in positive ionization by means of an electrospray source. The limits of quantification ranged between 0.3 ng mL(-1) for cocaine and 4.9 ng mL(-1) for psilocybine, with coefficients of determination (r(2)) >0.99 for all the analytes as recommended in the guidelines of Society of Forensic Toxicologists-American Association Forensic Sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Sergi
- Department of Food Science, University of Teramo, Via Carlo Lerici 1, 64023 Mosciano Stazione, Teramo, Italy.
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23
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Lowe RD, Guild GE, Harpas P, Kirkbride P, Hoffmann P, Voelcker NH, Kobus H. Rapid drug detection in oral samples by porous silicon assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2009; 23:3543-3548. [PMID: 19844964 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The demand for analysis of oral fluid for illicit drugs has arisen with the increased adoption of roadside testing, particularly in countries where changes in legislation allow random roadside testing of drivers for the presence of a palette of illicit drugs such as methamphetamine (MA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Oral samples are currently tested for such drugs at the roadside using an immunoassay-based commercial test kit. Positive roadside tests are sent for confirmatory laboratory analysis, traditionally by means of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). We present here an alternative rapid analysis technique, porous silicon assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (pSi LDI-MS), for the high-throughput analysis of oral fluids. This technique alleviates the need for sample derivatization, requires only sub-microliter sample volumes and allows fast analysis (of the order of seconds). In this study, the application of the technique is demonstrated with real samples from actual roadside testing. The analysis of oral samples resulted in detection of MA and MDMA with no extraction and analysis of THC after ethyl acetate extraction. We propose that, subject to miniaturization of a suitable mass spectrometer, this technique is well suited to underpin the deployment of oral fluid testing in the clinic, workplace and on the roadside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel D Lowe
- School of Chemistry, Physics and Earth Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
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Recent developments and applications of microextraction techniques in drug analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 396:339-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3076-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Revised: 08/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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25
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Ventura M, Pichini S, Ventura R, Leal S, Zuccaro P, Pacifici R, Torre RDL. Stability of Drugs of Abuse in Oral Fluid Collection Devices With Purpose of External Quality Assessment Schemes. Ther Drug Monit 2009; 31:277-80. [DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0b013e318198670b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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26
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Manikas AC, Beobide AS, Voyiatzis GA. Quantitative analysis viaSurface Enhanced Raman Scattering from Ag nano-colloids utilizing an oscillating cell and right-angle collection geometry. Analyst 2009; 134:587-92. [DOI: 10.1039/b815053b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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27
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Ventura M, Ventura R, Pichini S, Leal S, Zuccaro P, Pacifici R, Langohr K, de la Torre R. ORALVEQ: External quality assessment scheme of drugs of abuse in oral fluid. Forensic Sci Int 2008; 182:35-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2008] [Revised: 09/22/2008] [Accepted: 09/23/2008] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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28
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Mass spectrometric approaches in impaired driving toxicology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 393:97-107. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-2338-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 08/04/2008] [Accepted: 08/05/2008] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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