Workplace Bullying and Psychological Distress: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis Among Japanese Employees

Prevalence and nature of workplace bullying and harassment and associations with mental health conditions in England: a cross-sectional probability sample survey

BACKGROUND

Evidence on workplace bullying and harassment (WBH) in the UK has not used probability-sample surveys with robust mental health assessments. This study aimed to profile the prevalence and nature of WBH in England, identify inequalities in exposure, and quantify adjusted associations with mental health.

METHODS

Data were from the 2014 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, a cross-sectional probability-sample survey of the household population in England. Criteria for inclusion in the secondary analysis were being aged 16-70 years and in paid work in the past month (n = 3838). Common mental disorders (CMDs) were assessed using the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised and mental wellbeing using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale. Analyses were weighted. We examined associations between past-year WBH and current CMD using multivariable regression modelling, adjusting for sociodemographic factors. Interaction terms tested for gender differences in associations. The study received ethical approval (ETH21220-299).

RESULTS

One in ten employees (10.6%, n = 444/3838) reported past-year experience of WBH, with rates higher in women (12.2%, n = 284/2189), those of mixed, multiple, and other ethnicity (21.0%, n = 15/92), and people in debt (15.2%, n = 50/281) or living in cold homes (14.6%, n = 42/234). Most commonly identified perpetrators of WBH were line managers (53.6%, n = 244/444) or colleagues (42.8%, n = 194/444). Excessive criticism (49.3%, n = 212/444), verbal abuse (42.6%, n = 187/444), and humiliation (31.4%, n = 142/444) were the most common types. WBH was associated with all indicators of poor mental health, including CMD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.65, 95% CI 2.02-3.49), and 11 of 14 mental wellbeing indicators, including lower levels of confidence (aOR 0.57, 0.46-0.72) and closeness to others (aOR 0.57, 0.46-0.72). Patterns of association between WBH and mental health were similar in men and women.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings reinforce a need for more cohesive UK legislation against WBH; guidance on recognition of bullying behaviours for employees, managers, and human resources, focusing on prevention and early intervention, and increased awareness of the impact of WBH on mental health among health service practitioners. Limitations include reliance on cross-sectional data collected before pandemic-related and other changes in workplace practices. Longitudinal data are needed to improve evidence on causality and the longevity of mental health impacts.

Impacts of workplace verbal aggression classified via text mining on workers' mental health

BACKGROUND

Exposure to workplace aggression adversely affects workers' health; however, little is known regarding the impact of specific types of verbal content.

AIMS

We aimed to examine the relationship between exposure to several types of aggressive words at work and the victim's depressive symptoms and sleep disturbance using text mining.

METHODS

We conducted a longitudinal survey with 800 workers in wholesale and retail companies; of which, 500 responded to the follow-up survey. The Centre for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index were filled out by the participants, and their responses were analysed by logistic regression to evaluate the risk of depression or sleep problems. We collected exact aggressive words encountered at work over the past year as a dependent variable and classified it into four types using text mining, such as words criticizing one's performance.

RESULTS

The follow-up rate was 63%. Exposure to words threatening one's life showed a significant relationship with the risk of depression (odds ratio [OR] = 13.94, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.76-110.56). The exposure to words criticizing one's job performance is significantly related to the risk of sleep disturbance (OR = 5.56, 95% CI = 2.08-14.88).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that different contents of verbal aggression can have different impacts on workers' health. This indicates that not only overtly threatening and abusive language but also words related to one's performance can be a risk factor for workers, depending on how they are delivered. To mitigate the adverse effects, promoting effective communication and cultivating psychological detachment from work may be beneficial.

Boredom and engagement at work: do they have different antecedents and consequences?

This study aimed to demonstrate the empirical distinctiveness of boredom at work and work engagement in relation to their potential antecedents (job demands and job resources) and consequences (psychological distress and turnover intention) based on the Job Demands-Resources model. A three-wave longitudinal survey was conducted among registered monitors of an Internet survey company in Japan. The questionnaire included scales for boredom at work, work engagement, psychological distress, and turnover intention as well as participants' job characteristics and demographic variables. The hypothesized model was evaluated via structural equation modeling with 1,019 participants who were employed full-time. As expected, boredom at work was negatively associated with quantitative job demands and job resources and positively associated with psychological distress and turnover intention. In contrast, work engagement was positively associated with job resources and negatively associated with turnover intention. Thus, boredom at work and work engagement had different potential antecedents and were inversely related to employee well-being and organizational outcomes. However, contrary to expectations, qualitative job demands were not significantly associated with boredom at work. Further investigation is needed to understand the relationship between boredom and qualitative job demands, which require sustained cognitive load and the use of higher skills.

Development of the Workplace Interpersonal Problems Scale for Care Workers (WIPS) and examination of its reliability and validity

Introduction

The turnover rate of care workers has remained high by global standards, with previous studies showing an association between workplace interpersonal relations and care worker turnover and turnover intentions. This study details the development of the Workplace Interpersonal Problems Scale for Care Workers (WIPS) and examines its reliability and validity according to the COSMIN guidelines.

Methods

A total of 476 care workers employed by elder care facilities participated in the study. This study examined the reliability and validity of the WIPS after its development. Reliability was evaluated using Cronbach's α, test reliability with the standard error of measurement, and test-retest reliability with the intraclass correlation coefficient. Content validity, construct validity, and structural validity were examined to evaluate validity.

Results

Both total and subscale scores of the WIPS had a Cronbach's α coefficient >0.75 and high test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.75). Content validity analysis showed the item-content validity index of ≥0.90 for all WIPS items, confirming 100% of the hypotheses for testing construct validity. Confirmatory factor analysis showed an acceptable fit for the hypothesized six-factor construct (CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.05).

Conclusions

The WIPS was found to be a valid and reliable instrument. With the growth of the elderly population worldwide, we believe that the WIPS will be a useful quantitative measure to assess workplace interpersonal problems affecting care workers in various aspects.

The quantity and quality of scientific evidence about the health of working women in occupational health of Japan: A scoping review

OBJECTIVE

We aim to investigate the quantity and quality of scientific evidence dealing with comprehensive health issues of working women in occupational health.

METHODS

This scoping review of original articles that investigated comprehensive health issues of working women aged 19-64 years in Japan was published in PubMed (1967-2022) and Igaku Chuo Zasshi (or Ichu-shi, 1982-2022). Using identical broad search terms, we first identified 17 122 English and 6154 Japanese articles. We excluded those with clinically relevant topics, or ethnicity other than Japanese and included 853 English and 855 Japanese articles for review and classified them into nine research areas considered to be critical factors for women in the workforce and five study design groups to investigate the quality of the evidence accumulated.

RESULTS

Among 853 English-language articles in PubMed, "Mental health" was the most frequent area studied, followed by "Work-related disease" and "Lifestyle-related disease." Among 855 Japanese-language articles from Ichu-shi, "Mental health" was the most frequently studied area followed by "Work and balance," and "Work-related disease." "Infertility, pregnancy, and childbirth" and "Menstruation, menopause, and genital disease" were well studied in Ichu-shi but scarcely published in PubMed. "Harassment and discrimination" were sparsely reported in both databases. As for research designs, many articles in both PubMed and Ichu-shi employed descriptive or cross-sectional study designs. However, a few studies employed cohort/longitudinal or interventional studies.

CONCLUSION

The results underscored the need for higher-quality study designs with more scientific evidence on working women's health in the field of occupational health.

Relationship between financial distress and mistreatment of workers regarding the COVID-19 prevention measures: A 1-year prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

A substantial number of workers' experience mistreatment in the workplace, impacting workers' health and companies' functioning. Vulnerability of those with lower income has been reported, yet little is known about mistreatment during COVID-19. This study aims to examine whether workers in financial distress are particularly prone to mistreatment at the workplace with reference to pandemic-related infection prevention measures.

METHODS

An internet-based, year-long prospective cohort study was conducted from 2020 to 2021. Participants were recruited from workers aged 20 and 65 years and currently employed at baseline. In total, 27 036 were included in the analysis and 18 170 responded to the follow-up survey. The odds ratio (OR) of mistreatment at the workplace regarding COVID-19 associated with the financial condition at baseline was estimated using multilevel logistic regression analysis nested by participant residence.

RESULTS

Compared with workers in a comfortable financial condition, those under financial stress showed significantly higher ORs of mistreatment (age- and sex-adjusted model: 2.08, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.75-2.47, P < .001, model adjusted for socioeconomic factors: 2.14, 95% CI 1.79-2.55, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Workers in financial distress were shown to be vulnerable to mistreatment at work regarding infection prevention measures in the COVID-19 pandemic, underscoring a double burden of poverty and mistreatment. The perspective of vulnerable groups needs to be taken into account when implementing countermeasures against emerging infectious diseases, such as COVID-19. As unfair treatment in the workplace might distort vulnerable employees' reactions to infection control (e.g., hiding infection), financial deprivation should be considered a public health issue.

Do personal resilience, coping styles, and social support prevent future psychological distress when experiencing workplace bullying? Evidence from a 1-year prospective study

BACKGROUND

Although previous studies have identified that workplace bullying causes serious mental health problems to the victims, it is not yet fully investigated moderating factors on the association between workplace bullying and psychological distress. This longitudinal study, therefore, examined the moderating role of organizational resources such as supervisor support or coworker support as well as individual resources such as stress coping styles or personal resilience on the association.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study for 2036 civil servants was conducted with a one-year time lag (follow-up rate: 77.2%). At baseline, Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, Brief Scales for Coping Profile, and Brief Job Stress Questionnaire were used to measure workplace bullying, personal resilience, stress coping styles, and social support, respectively. Psychological distress was measured using K6 both at baseline and follow-up.

RESULTS

The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that workplace bullying was associated with subsequent increased psychological distress even after adjusting for individual and occupational characteristics, but its association disappeared after adjusting for psychological distress at baseline. After adjusting for psychological distress at baseline, greater resilience, greater seeking help, greater changing view, and lower avoidance were associated with lower subsequent psychological distress when being bullied. In contrast, worksite social support and family/friends support was not associated with lower subsequent psychological distress when being bullied. A significant interaction effect of workplace bullying and changing mood was observed on subsequent psychological distress.

CONCLUSIONS

The effects or moderating factors were limited on the longitudinal association between bullying and mental health because psychological distress at baseline was the strongest predictor of subsequent psychological distress.

[Enterprise countermeasures against workplace bullying and harassment and their association with prevalence of bullying and harassment, organizational climate, and employee perception of change]

OBJECTIVES

Although companies are required to implement countermeasures against workplace harassment, their effectiveness has not been verified. Therefore, in this study, we compared employees' awareness of the primary preventive measures or organizational climate and the prevalence of harassment in each company.

METHODS

A total of 68 companies in Japan (with a total of approximately 20,000 employees) were targeted. Harassment countermeasures were measured using seven items. Power (11 items), sexual (7 items), maternity (2 items), paternity (2 items), care (1 item), and gender harassment (1 item) were measured. Organizational climate was measured using 10 items comprising subcategories, such as civility, psychological safety, and role clarity. The percentage of employee recognition of anti-harassment measures and organizational climate was divided into three groups (high, medium, and low), and the prevalence of each type of harassment and employees' recognition of changes in the workplace were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test or ANOVA.

RESULTS

In companies where more than 70% of the employees were aware that their company had implemented questionnaire surveys to ascertain the working environment, by displaying posters or providing training along with the establishment of a group-wide general and a compliance consultation service, the prevalence of power and sexual harassment was lower than in companies with lower awareness. However, no difference in the prevalence of power harassment by the employee recognition level could be confirmed with the dissemination of messages by top management, establishment of rules through employment regulations, and the establishment of a consultation service in the company. Regarding organizational climate, the incidence of power and sexual harassment was lower in companies where more than 80% of employees perceived high levels of civility, psychological safety, and role clarity. In addition, the higher the percentage of employees who were aware of the harassment prevention measures implemented by the company, the higher the percentage of employees who felt favorable changes in themselves, their surroundings, and their workplace.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The harassment rate tended to be lower in companies where more employees were aware of the implementation of anti-harassment measures. The fact that the rate of harassment was lower in companies where there was role clarity and many employees felt psychologically safe suggests that measures focusing on the organizational climate may also be effective in preventing harassment.

The effects of pregnancy discrimination on postpartum depressive symptoms: a follow-up study

Background

Pregnancy discrimination in the workplace is prevalent worldwide. However, few studies have examined the effects of pregnancy discrimination on mothers’ perinatal mental health. We aimed to investigate the association between pregnancy discrimination and postpartum depressive symptoms, and the mediation effects of prenatal depressive symptoms on this association.

Methods

Our sample consisted of 285 Japanese women employed during pregnancy who completed a baseline online survey in May 2020 and a follow-up mail survey two months postpartum. Pregnancy discrimination was defined as exposure to any of 16 forms of disadvantageous treatment or harassment related to pregnancy, prohibited by national guidelines. Prenatal (assessed at baseline) and postpartum (assessed at follow-up) depressive symptoms were measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Multiple linear regression and mediation analyses were performed overall and stratified by regular (permanent) and non-regular (precarious) employees.

Results

Overall, 23.9% of participants experienced pregnancy discrimination during pregnancy. After adjusting for potential confounders, pregnancy discrimination was significantly associated with postpartum depressive symptoms (coefficient 1.76, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.65–2.88). When stratified by employment type, these effects were observable among non-regular employees (coefficient 2.51, 95% CI 0.45–4.57) but not regular employees. Mediation analysis showed that prenatal depressive symptoms mediated 57.1% (95% CI 20.1–94.1%) of the association between pregnancy discrimination and postpartum depressive symptoms among all participants, with a greater effect among non-regular employees (64.1% [95% CI 18.5–109.8%]).

Conclusions

Pregnancy discrimination has adverse effects on postpartum depressive symptoms, partially through prenatal depressive symptoms, especially among non-regular employees. To prevent perinatal depression in female workers, employers should comply with legislation and take preventive measures against pregnancy discrimination, while considering vulnerable employees.

Risk factors for workplace bullying, severe psychological distress and suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic among the general working population in Japan: a large-scale cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the risk factors for workplace bullying and mental health outcomes among workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study.

SETTING

A nationwide online survey was conducted from August to September 2020 in Japan.

PARTICIPANTS

16 384 workers (men: n=9565; women: n=6789).

MAIN OUTCOME VARIABLES

Workplace bullying was measured by one item from the Brief Job Stress Questionnaire; severe psychological distress according to the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (≥13) and suicidal ideation by one item. Prevalence ratios were calculated by modified Poisson regression analyses adjusting for potential confounders such as gender, age, occupational characteristics and a prior history of depression.

RESULTS

Overall, 15% of workers experienced workplace bullying, 9% had severe psychological distress and 12% had suicidal ideation during the second and third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. The results of this study showed men, executives, managers and permanent employees had a higher risk of bullying than women or part-time workers. Increased physical and psychological demands were common risk factors for bullying, severe psychological distress and suicidal ideation. Starting to work from home was a significant predictor for adverse mental health outcomes but a preventive factor against workplace bullying.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study showed different high-risk groups for bullying or mental health during the pandemic. Any intervention to decrease workplace bullying or mental health problems should focus not only on previously reported vulnerable workers but also workers who have experienced a change in work style or job demands.

Workplace Violence Against Adolescents, Uganda, 2014–2019

Objectives. To describe the prevalence of and risk factors for workplace violence among Ugandan adolescents.

Methods. The analysis focused on adolescents recruited at primary schools who participated in the endline survey of a trial in 2014 (at ages 11–14 years) and were followed up in 2018–2019 (at ages 17–19 years). The analysis was restricted to those engaged in past-year paid work (n = 1406). We estimated the prevalence of past-year workplace violence and used mixed-effects multivariable logistic regression to explore associations with characteristics measured in early adolescence, current life circumstances, and work-related factors.

Methods. The analysis focused on adolescents recruited at primary schools who participated in a 2014 survey and were followed up in 2018–2019. The analysis was restricted to those engaged in past-year paid work (n = 1406). We estimated the prevalence of past-year workplace violence and used mixed-effects multivariable logistic regression to explore associations with characteristics measured in early adolescence, current life circumstances, and work-related factors.

Results. Overall, 40% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 37%, 43%) of adolescents in paid work experienced past-year workplace violence; odds were doubled among female domestic workers (vs retail/trade workers; adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.07; 95% CI = 1.28, 3.35). Experiences measured in early adolescence, including eating less than 3 meals the previous day, experiencing severe physical violence (male adolescents: AOR = 1.48; 95% CI = 1.11, 1.98; female adolescents: AOR = 1.69; 95% CI = 1.13, 2.53) and bullying, and having poor mental health (male adolescents: AOR = 2.32 95% CI = 1.37, 3.92; female adolescents: AOR = 2.27; 95% CI = 1.05, 4.89), were associated with increased odds of workplace violence. Current life circumstances (fewer household assets, more moves, functional difficulties, poorer mental health) were also associated with workplace violence.

Conclusions. Interventions are needed to address the high prevalence of workplace violence across all sectors, with female domestic workers particularly vulnerable. Early prevention of violence and poor mental health may be promising. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(11):1651–1661. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306983 )

Victimization and witnessing of workplace bullying and physician-diagnosed physical and mental health and organizational outcomes: A cross-sectional study

Background

Compared to the numerous reports on mental health outcomes of workplace bullying victims, research on organizational outcomes of witnesses and physical health outcomes of victims and witnesses is scarce. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between bullying victimization and witnessing and various physical and mental health outcomes and organizational outcomes such as sickness absence, work performance, and job satisfaction.

Methods

This study used cross-sectional data from a nationally representative, community-based sample of 5,000 Japanese residents aged 20–60. We analyzed data from 1,496 respondents after excluding those not working at the time of the survey and those with missing values. Workplace bullying, psychological distress, physical complaints, and job satisfaction were assessed with the New Brief Job Stress Questionnaire and work performance with the World Health Organization’s Health and Work Performance Questionnaire. In addition, subjective health status, physician-diagnosed mental or physical illness, and sickness absence were asked as one item. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis or Poisson regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between victimization/witnessing workplace bullying and health and organizational outcomes.

Results

Both victimization and witnessing workplace bullying were significantly associated with psychological distress, physical complaints, subjective poor health, physician-diagnosed mental disorders, and job dissatisfaction. Victimization of workplace bullying was further associated with physician-diagnosed respiratory diseases, sickness absence (≥7 days), and poor work performance. Victims were absent from work for 4.5 more sick days and had 11.2% lower work performance than non-victims.

Conclusions

The results showed that both victimization and witnessing workplace bullying were significantly associated with physical and mental outcomes and various organizational outcomes. Organizations should implement further measures to prevent personal and organizational losses due to workplace bullying.

Job insecurity and psychological distress during the COVID-19 outbreak: The moderating role of perceived supervisor support among hotel employees in Malaysia

BACKGROUND: Millions of employees were laid off during the COVID-19 pandemic. The hospitality industry has been gravely hit by this crisis. OBJECTIVE: Drawing from the theory of conservation of resources (COR), our study aims to examine possible factors that influence turnover intention among hotel employees. METHODS: The hypotheses were tested on 141 hotel employees from Klang Valley, Malaysia. Data were collected by means of questionnaires, purposive sampling was employed, and PLS-SEM was used in performing the data analyses. RESULTS: Job insecurity and psychological distress were found to be the potent antecedent of turnover intention. In contrast, the role of perceived supervisor support did not significantly moderate the effects of both job insecurity and psychological distress on the quitting intention. CONCLUSION: Re-looking at existing policies and leadership styles may be fruitful in ensuring the sustainability path of an organization. This is pivotal in growing back the entire hospitality industry that has gravely affected by COVID-19.

Exploring the Workplace Bullying of Indonesian Caregivers and Its Influencing Factors in Taiwan

Background: Bullying can pose a risk to the health and safety of humans, including the risk of damage to the emotional, psychosocial, mental, or physical health of employees in the workplace. In this study, we aimed to understand the personal characteristics, mental health, sleep quality, and workplace bullying status of Indonesian caregivers and explore the influencing factors of workplace bullying among them. Methods: This cross-sectional study was based on a structured questionnaire in Indonesian, which was designed to collect the data of essential personal characteristics, workplace bullying, sleep quality, and mental health using the Indonesian versions of the Negative Acts Questionnaire−Revised (NAQ-R), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and the Brief Symptoms Rating Scale (BSRS-5). Results: A total of 60.9% of Indonesian caregivers never experienced workplace bullying in Taiwan. A multiple regression analysis revealed that being a household caregiver (β = 0.14, p = 0.021), sleep quality (β = 0.18, p = 0.031), and mental health (β = 0.44, p < 0.001) were significantly correlated with the overall workplace bullying scores of the respondents and revealed that these three variables explained 45% of the variance. Conclusions: Taiwan Indonesian caregivers have a similar workplace bullying rate to Indonesian employees in the workplace. This study indicated the relationships among the workplace bullying of foreign caregivers and demonstrated that being a household caregiver, sleep quality, and mental health were closely related.

Assessing workplace civility: Validity and 1‐year test‐retest reliability of a Japanese version of the CREW Civility Scale

Objectives

This study aimed to examine the reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the eight‐item CREW Civility Scale which measures workplace civility norms and compare the civility scores among various occupations.

Methods

A longitudinal study included all employees in a social care organization (N = 658) and a cross‐sectional study included all civil servants in one city (N = 3242) in Japan. Structural validity was tested through confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). Construct validity was assessed through Pearson's correlations of civility with other variables. Internal consistency was assessed by Cronbach's alpha and 1‐year test‐retest reliability was assessed by the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC).

Results

The results of CFA showed an acceptable level of model fit (TLI =0.929; CFI =0.949; and SRMR =0.034). CREW Civility Scale scores were significantly positively correlated with supervisor support, co‐worker support, and work engagement, while significantly negatively correlated with incivility, workplace bullying, intention to leave, and psychological distress, which were consistent with our hypotheses. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.93 and ICC was 0.52. Younger, high‐educated, and managerial employees and, childminder/nursery staff reported higher civility. High school graduates and respondents who did not graduate from high school, part‐time employees, nurses, paramedical staff, and care workers reported lower civility.

Conclusions

The Japanese version of the CREW Civility scale is a reliable, valid measure of civility, appropriate for Japanese workplaces as well as for use in multi‐national studies alongside other existing versions of this scale in English, Portuguese and Farsi.

Overtime working patterns and adverse events in work-related suicide cases: hierarchical cluster analysis of national compensation data in Japan (fiscal year 2015-2016)

Background

Although various work-related adverse events affect workers’ mental health, the association between long working hours and mental disorders remains unclear. We investigated the characteristics of overtime work and work-related adverse events among all cases of compensated work-related suicide in Japan to empirically reveal the context of the serious consequences.

Methods

We analysed all 167 cases of mental disorders resulting in suicide that were compensated in fiscal year 2015–2016. Hierarchical clustering was applied to the overtime working history. Work-related adverse events were also evaluated as the qualitative aspects of their jobs.

Results

More than half of the cases committed suicide within a month of developing a mental disorder. The Administrative and professional or engineering workers had a higher suicide rate. The clustering analysis revealed chronic long working hours (19%), gradual increase (27%), or rapid increase (25%) in working hours before the onset of a mental disorder. A group of cases with less overwork experienced more interpersonal conflicts.

Conclusion

This is the first study to employ a clustering technique to objectively reveal the actual working patterns behind suicide. The patterns of working overtime before the onset of mental disorders varied considerably among the cases. Taking the transition of working overtime into account may provide clearer insight into the relationship between long working hours and workers’ mental health. These results highlight the need for countermeasures especially for causes of chronic overworking, drastic increases in working hours, and interpersonal conflicts to prevent work-related suicide.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00420-021-01760-5.

Validation of the Japanese Version of the Burnout Assessment Tool

The current study aimed to validate the Japanese version of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT-J), a new burnout measure. We conducted an Internet survey to confirm the validity and reliability of the BAT-J, using registered monitors from a Japanese survey company. The first-wave survey was conducted in May 2018, with 1,032 monitors. Of these, 498 participated in the second-wave survey in June 2018 to confirm 1-month test–retest reliability. We examined the factorial validity of the BAT-J core symptoms (BAT-JC) and BAT-J secondary symptoms (BAT-JS), as well as their reliability (internal consistency and test–retest reliability) and construct validity. Factorial validity was examined using confirmatory factor analyses and exploratory structural equation modeling bifactor analyses. Convergent and discriminant validity were examined using multitrait–multimethod frameworks well as the average variance explained. Exploratory structural equation modeling bifactor solutions for the BAT-JC, BAT-JS, and BAT-J demonstrated the best fit to the data. They also indicated that the general factor accounted for over two-thirds of the common variance explained. Internal consistency and test–retest reliability were confirmed. Convergent and internal discriminant validity of the BAT-JC were confirmed vis-ȧ-vis burnout, as assessed with the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey. Moreover, external discriminant validity of the BAT-J was demonstrated for work engagement and workaholism. Finally, both BAT scales showed significant positive relationships with job demands and turnover intention. All validity results were in line with the job demands–resources model. The results of the current study provide the first evidence for the BAT-J’s reliability and factorial and construct validity.