Longitudinal Growth Outcomes Following First-line Treatment for Pediatric Patients With Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Swallowed topical steroid therapy for eosinophilic oesophagitis in children: practical, evidence-based guidance by the BSPGHAN Eosinophilic Oesophagitis Working Group

OBJECTIVE

To develop evidence-based guidance for topical steroid use in paediatric eosinophilic oesophagitis (pEoE) in the UK for both induction and maintenance treatment.

METHODS

A systematic literature review using Cochrane guidance was carried out by the British Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (BSPGHAN) Eosinophilic Oesophagitis (EoE) Working Group (WG) and research leads to determine the evidence base for preparation, dosing and duration of use of swallowed topical steroid (STS) formulations in EoE. Seven themes relating to pEoE were reviewed by the WG, alongside the Cochrane review this formed the evidence base for consensus recommendations for pEoE in the UK. We provide an overview of practical considerations including treatment regimen and dosing. Oral viscous budesonide (OVB) and, if agreed by local regulatory committees, orodispersible budesonide (budesonide 1 mg tablets) were selected for ease of use and with most improvement in histology. A practical 'how to prepare and use' OVB appendix is included. Side effects identified included candidiasis and adrenal gland suppression. The use of oral systemic steroids in strictures is discussed briefly.

RESULTS

2638 citations were identified and 18 randomised controlled trials were included. Evidence exists for the use of STS for induction and maintenance therapy in EoE, especially regarding histological improvement. Using the Appraisal of Guidelines, Research and Evaluation criteria, dosing of steroids by age (0.5 mg two times per day <10 years and 1 mg two times per day ≥10 years) for induction of at least 3 months was suggested based on evidence and practical consideration. Once histological remission is achieved, maintenance dosing of steroids appears to reduce the frequency and severity of relapse, as such a maintenance weaning regimen is proposed.

CONCLUSION

A practical, evidence-based flow chart and guidance recommendations with consensus from the EoE WG and education and research representatives of BSPGHAN were developed with detailed practical considerations for use in the UK.

Dietary Management of Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic immune-mediated food allergy-driven disease characterized by eosinophilic inflammation of the esophagus leading to symptoms of esophageal dysfunction. Prior studies have supported the key role of food allergen exposure as the main driver behind the etiopathogenesis showing that removal of food antigens can result in disease remission in both children and adults. These landmark studies serve as the basis for the rising interest and evolution of dietary therapy in EoE. This article will focus on the rationale for dietary therapy in EoE and provide helpful tools for the implementation of dietary therapy in practice.

Treatment of Pediatric Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Traditional and Novel Therapies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review presents and summarizes the existing studies on the treatment goals and options for pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis utilizing rigorous peer-reviewed literature.

RECENT FINDINGS

In addition to traditional treatments, emerging biologic therapies continue to evolve the approach to treating pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis. Well defined treatment goals will aid the continued development of new therapies. Further, innovative assessment tools have changed how the clinician is able to assess the effectiveness of therapies with a trend toward less invasive options. The management of pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis continues to evolve with the advent of both novel treatment options and assessment tools. Treatment choices, with benefits and risks involved, should be presented to families upon diagnosis and tailored towards the individual patient and likelihood of adherence and success. Biologic therapy for EoE presents an exciting option for both first line therapy and escalation for those with severe or unresponsive disease.

Body mass index in relation to symptom presentation on diagnosis of eosinophilic esophagitis in children

BACKGROUND

The relationship between body mass index (BMI) and eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) among children is not well characterized.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the presentations of EoE in pediatric patients of different weight classes.

METHODS

Records of newly diagnosed children with EoE at an academic center from 2015 to 2018 were evaluated regarding demographics, symptom presentation, and endoscopic findings and compared among the underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obese groups.

RESULTS

There were 341 patients aged 0 to 18 years old newly diagnosed with EoE from 2015 to 2018 (68.3% male, 233 of 341; 80.9% White, 276 of 341). Of the 341, 17 were underweight (4.9%), 214 normal weight (62.8%), 47 overweight (13.8%), and 63 obese (18.5%). Children with obese and overweight BMI were more likely to be diagnosed at an older age (P = .005) and to present with a chief complaint of abdominal pain (P = .02). Normal- and under-weight children were more likely to have an immunoglobulin E-mediated food allergy (P = .02). Normal weight children were more likely to be tested for food allergies (P = .02) and inhalant allergies (P = .004) and have linear furrows on endoscopy (P = .03), compared with children with overweight and obese BMI. No significant differences were found regarding race, sex, type of insurance, atopic dermatitis, asthma, or allergic rhinitis in relation to BMI status and EoE diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Nearly one-third of children were obese or in overweight status on diagnosis with EoE. Children with BMI in the overweight or obese range were more likely to be older at diagnosis and to have a chief complaint of abdominal pain on presentation.

A Practical Update on Pediatric Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an emerging atopic disease of unknown etiology limited to the esophagus. The pathogenesis is still understood and is likely characterized by type 2 inflammation. Food allergens are the primary triggers of EoE that stimulate inflammatory cells through an impaired esophageal barrier. In children and adolescents, clinical presentation varies with age and mainly includes food refusal, recurrent vomiting, failure to thrive, abdominal/epigastric pain, dysphagia, and food impaction. Upper-gastrointestinal endoscopy is the gold standard for diagnosing and monitoring EoE. EoE therapy aims to achieve clinical, endoscopic, and histological ("deep") remission; prevent esophageal fibrosis; and improve quality of life. In pediatrics, the cornerstones of therapy are proton pump inhibitors, topical steroids (swallowed fluticasone and viscous budesonide), and food elimination diets. In recent years, much progress has been made in understanding EoE pathogenesis, characterizing the clinical and molecular heterogeneity, and identifying new therapeutic approaches. Notably, clinical, molecular, endoscopic, and histological features reflect and influence the evolution of inflammation over time and the response to currently available treatments. Therefore, different EoE phenotypes and endotypes have recently been recognized. Dupilumab recently was approved by FDA and EMA as the first biological therapy for adolescents (≥12 years) and adults with active EoE, but other biologics are still under consideration. Due to its chronic course, EoE management requires long-term therapy, a multidisciplinary approach, and regular follow-ups.

Body Mass Index and Associated Medical Expenditures in the US Among Privately Insured Individuals Aged 2 to 19 Years in 2018

Importance

Nearly 40% of US youth aged 2 to 19 years do not have a body mass index (BMI) in the healthy weight category. However, there are no recent estimates for BMI-associated expenditures using clinical or claims data.

Objective

To estimate medical expenditures among US youth across all BMI categories along with sex and age groups.

Design, Setting, Participants

This cross-sectional study used IQVIA's ambulatory electronic medical records (AEMR) data set linked with IQVIA's PharMetrics Plus Claims database from January 2018 through December 2018. Analysis was performed from March 25, 2022, through June 20, 2022. It included a convenience sample of a geographically diverse patient population from AEMR and PharMetrics Plus. The study sample included privately insured individuals with a BMI measurement in 2018 and excluded patients with pregnancy-related visits.

Exposure

BMI categories.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Total medical expenditures were estimated using generalized linear model regression with γ distribution and log-link function. For out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditures, a 2-part model was used that included logistic regression to estimate the probability of positive expenditures followed by generalized linear model. Estimates were shown with and without accounting for sex, race and ethnicity, payer type, geographic region, age interacted with sex and BMI categories, and confounding conditions.

Results

The sample included 205 876 individuals aged 2 to 19 years; 104 066 were male (50.5%) and the median age was 12 years. Compared with those with healthy weight, total and OOP expenditures were higher for all other BMI categories. Differences in total expenditures were highest for those with severe obesity ($909; 95% CI, $600-$1218) followed by underweight ($671; 95% CI, $286-$1055) compared with healthy weight. Differences in OOP expenditures were highest for those with severe obesity ($121; 95% CI, $86-$155) followed by underweight ($117; 95% CI, $78-$157) compared with healthy weight. Having underweight was associated with higher total expenditures at ages 2 to 5 years and 6 to 11 years by $679 (95% CI, $228-$1129) and $1166 (95% CI, $632-$1700), respectively; having severe obesity was associated with higher total expenditures at ages 2 to 5 years, 6 to 11 years, and 12 to 17 years by $1035 (95% CI, $208-$1863), $821 (95% CI, $414-$1227), and $1088 (95% CI, $594-$1582), respectively.

Conclusions and Relevance

The study team found medical expenditures to be higher for all BMI categories when compared with those with healthy weight. These findings may indicate potential economic value of interventions or treatments aimed at reducing BMI-associated health risks.

The role of biologics in pediatric food allergy and eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders

Continuing insight into the molecular mechanisms of atopic disorders has enabled the development of biologics to precisely target these diseases. Food allergy (FA) and eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGIDs) are driven by similar inflammatory molecular mechanisms and exist along the same atopic disease spectrum. Therefore, many of the same biologics are being investigated to target key drivers of mechanisms shared across the disease states. The enormous potential of biologics for the treatment of FA and EGIDs is highlighted by the significant increases in the number of ongoing clinical trials (more than 30) evaluating their use in these disease states, as well as by the recent US Food and Drug Administration approval of dupilumab for the treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis. Here we discuss past and current research into the use of biologics in FA and EGIDs and their potential role in improving treatment options in the future, with the need to have biologics widely clinically available.

Clinical guidance for the use of dupilumab in eosinophilic esophagitis: A yardstick

The Joint Task Force for the American Academy of Allergy Asthma Immunology and American College of Allergy Asthma Immunology and the American Gastroenterology Association recently published guidelines for the management of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). Because the guideline was published, dupilumab became the first and only medication to gain regulatory approval for the treatment of EoE. This expert opinion document provides a framework for how the clinician can consider using dupilumab in the treatment strategy for patients with EoE.

Current treatment options and long-term outcomes in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis

INTRODUCTION

Dietary and pharmacological (proton pump inhibitors, swallowed topical corticosteroids) therapies are effective for induction of clinical and histological remission of eosinophilic esophagitis. However, data evaluating their long-term efficacy and safety is limited.

AREAS COVERED

Since eosinophilic esophagitis is chronic, clinical, endoscopic, and histological features usually recur when successful treatments are stopped. In untreated patients, persistent esophageal eosinophilic inflammation may progress to fibrostenosis over time, giving place to strictures and narrow-caliber esophagi. This article comprehensively reviews available data on long-term maintenance of eosinophilic esophagitis with pharmacological and dietary treatment. It also discusses limitations re: available literature and outlines data gaps on adherence to therapy and monitoring disease activity in the long-term.

EXPERT OPINION

Evidence indicates that long-term maintenance therapy may decrease the risk of esophageal stricture, food bolus impaction, and need for dilation in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis. Further knowledge on eosinophilic esophagitis phenotypes is needed to ascertain who will benefit best from sustained therapy. Unanswered questions include an adequate definition for sustained remission, best strategies for maintenance drugs and diets, enhancement of treatment adherence, and proper monitoring for long-term surveillance.

Nutritional and Psychological Considerations for Dietary Therapy in Eosinophilic Esophagitis

The step-up empiric elimination diet, starting from one/two food groups of most local allergens remains the current gold standard for a dietary approach in eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) patients. Milk, followed by wheat and egg, is the most frequent food that triggers EoE in pediatric and adult patients. Elimination diets, with restrictions over four food groups, may be limited to highly motivated patients, in which nutritional counseling is recommended. Malnourishment is uncommon in EoE patients and likely multifactorial (concomitant gastrointestinal eosinophilic disorders or IgE-mediated food allergies, feeding difficulties, abnormal feeding behavior). Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder in EoE children on highly restrictive diets was lately described and may warrant specific psychological support. As for adults, quality of life may be impaired by symptom severity and dietary restrictions, aside from recently reported food impaction-related specific anxiety in up to 43% of patients. Severe symptoms, feeding dysfunction, and diet restrictions may negatively influence psychosocial adjustment for patients and their caregivers.

Malnutrition in Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Disorders

Primary eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGIDs) are emerging chronic/remittent inflammatory diseases of unknown etiology, which may involve any part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, in the absence of secondary causes of GI eosinophilia. Eosinophilic esophagitis is the prototype of eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders and is clinically characterized by symptoms related to esophageal inflammation and dysfunction. A few studies have assessed the nutritional status of patients with eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders, showing conflicting results. This review summarizes the current evidence on the nutritional status of patients with EGIDs, focusing on the pediatric point of view and also speculating potential etiological mechanisms.

Prevalence and Predictors of Compromised Bone Mineral Density in Pediatric Eosinophilic Esophagitis

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to determine whether patients with eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) have lower bone mineral density (BMD) than expected and if bone deficits are more pronounced in subgroups of patients according to comorbidities (atopic disease and joint hypermobility) or treatments (dietary restriction, medication exposure).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective chart review was performed to obtain clinical data, including length of diagnosis, comorbidities, and methods of treatment for patients with EoE ages 3 to 21 years who had a lumbar spine dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scan performed between 2014 and 2017. BMD was standardized by calculation of age, sex, and race-specific z scores.

RESULTS

A total of 269 patients met study criteria. The mean BMD z score (-0.55, 95% confidence interval: -0.68, -0.42) was lower than expected (P < 0.0001), and the prevalence of low BMD z score (≤-2.0) was higher than expected (8.5%, 95% confidence interval: 5.2%-11.9%, P < 0.0001). In multivariable regression models, BMD z scores were -0.27 lower among those following an elimination diet and -0.65 lower among those with any lifetime use of a proton pump inhibitor (93% of the sample). There was no association with swallowed steroid use.

CONCLUSIONS

In our sample, pediatric patients with EoE had a slightly lower BMD z score compared to peers, and the prevalence of low BMD was higher than expected. Taken cautiously given the limitations of our sample, risk factors for bone deficits included any lifetime use of proton pump inhibitor and a restrictive elimination diet, but not swallowed steroid use. Larger prospective studies are needed to better characterize risk factors for low BMD to help inform screening, selection of therapies, and provide appropriate anticipatory guidance for patients with EoE.

Dietary treatment of eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders in children

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To provide an overview of recent developments on dietary treatment of eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGID) in children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Food antigens are the main triggers of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE); however, currently available allergy tests cannot reliably identify eliciting antigens. Studies evaluating the six-food empiric elimination diet (6FED-milk, wheat/gluten, egg, soy/legumes, nuts and fish/seafood) have shown histological remission rates of 72%. Milk, egg, wheat/gluten, and, to a lesser extent, soy/legumes were the most frequent food triggers with only one or two culprit foods identified for most patients. A 4-food elimination strategy afforded a 64% remission rate. A step-up two-four-six food elimination diet generated a 43% remission rate at the two-food elimination stage, and similar reported rates for 4FED and 6FED. Endoscopic procedures were reduced by a 20% compared with 6FED. In a prospective study including 63 children, exclusive milk elimination has been effective in 44% of them. Controlled elimination and reintroduction with histological assessment is necessary.

SUMMARY

Dietary therapy of EoE has evolved from more restrictive to less restrictive diets to provide better balance between efficacy vs. nutritional deficiencies and quality of life. Data on efficacy of dietary therapy in other EGIDs are very scarce.

Diagnosis and treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an eosinophil-rich, TH2 antigen-mediated disease of increasing pediatric and adult worldwide prevalence. Diagnosis requires greater than or equal to 15 eosinophils per high-power field on light microscopy. Symptoms reflect esophageal dysfunction, and typical endoscopic features include linear furrows, white plaques, and concentric rings. Progressive disease leads to pathologic tissue remodeling, with ensuing esophageal rigidity and loss of luminal diameter caused by strictures. Therapies include proton pump inhibitors, elimination diets, and topical corticosteroids. Effective treatment can reverse tissue fibrosis in some patients, as well as decrease the rate of food impactions. Esophageal dilation might be required to increase luminal patency. The chronic nature of EoE necessitates long-term therapy to avoid disease recurrence and complications. This review serves the function of providing the current state-of-the-art diagnostic criteria and disease management for adult and pediatric EoE.

A Conceptual Approach to Understanding Treatment Response in Eosinophilic Esophagitis

While the diagnosis and initial treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis are becoming more standardized, there are still major gaps in knowledge related to measuring treatment response. One such question centers on how to measure treatment response and what treatment endpoints should be. This impacts not only patient care and engagement in decision-making, but also the field of drug development. In addition, studies so far have use a myriad of treatment endpoints including over a dozen histologic endpoint criteria. This review will discuss the various stakeholders involved in assessment of treatment endpoints of a complex condition, including patients, practitioners and regulatory agencies, and the care settings in which treatment response is assessed, including routine clinical care, clinical trials, and observational studies. Potential parameters or treatment endpoints such as histology, symptoms, patient-reported outcomes, endoscopy, and biomarkers are discussed along with associated challenges and opportunities. A framework on how to define treatment outcomes is discussed and a conceptual approach treatment response is proposed. This takes into account histology, symptoms, and endoscopic findings and harnesses existing, validated tools. It includes definitions of nonresponse, complete normalization, and a graded response category between these 2 extremes, and also permits flexibility and latitude for modifications as newer knowledge emerges. In addition, ways to position the pediatric population in these endeavors are discussed as are future research directions.

Evaluation of long-term course in children with eosinophilic esophagitis reveals distinct histologic patterns and clinical characteristics

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic and increasingly prevalent antigen-driven disease. There is a paucity of information on long-term course in children.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to understand the longitudinal trajectory of pediatric EoE during routine clinical care.

METHODS

We prospectively enrolled children into an EoE database and reviewed their medical and pathologic records over 13 years.

RESULTS

From 2011 to 2015, 146 children with EoE seen for their first visit at our center had 2 or more years of follow-up and 3 or more endoscopies over an average follow-up period of 5.13 years (range, 2-13 years). Longitudinal eosinophilic inflammation during treatment demonstrated 3 patterns over time. Children with less than 15 eosinophils/high-power field (hpf) for greater than 75% of their follow-up period were termed continuous responders (CRs). Children with waxing and waning inflammation of less than 15 eosinophils/hpf for less than 75% but 25% or more of the follow-up period were termed intermittent responders (IRs). Nonresponders (NRs) were defined as having less than 15 eosinophils/hpf for less than 25% of their follow-up. Fifty-nine (40%) of 146 patients were CRs, 65 (45%) of 146 were IRs, and 22 (15%) of 146 were NRs. CRs differed from IRs and NRs on the parameter of male/female ratio (1:1 in CRs, 4:1 in IRs, and 6:1 in NRs; P < .001) and in their initial response to any therapy, including proton pump inhibitors (P < .001). Endoscopic severity correlated with esophageal eosinophilia (r = 0.73, P < .001). On multivariate analysis, female sex and initial therapeutic response to medications or elimination diet were associated with long-term control of esophageal eosinophilia.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term pediatric EoE followed 3 different longitudinal trajectories of inflammation. The long-term histologic groups differed significantly in biological sex and initial therapeutic response.

Eosinophilic Esophagitis and the Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Diseases: Approach to Diagnosis and Management

The eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases (EGIDs) represent disorders of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that result from the local infiltration and aberrant activity of eosinophils and other immune cells. Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is the most well-characterized EGID and is defined by the presence of intraepithelial eosinophils in the esophagus (≥15 eosinophils per high-powered field) and clinical symptoms associated with esophageal dysfunction. The other EGIDs are rare and lack strong data regarding pathogenesis and management. The incidence and prevalence of EoE are increasing, and EoE is now a major cause of upper GI morbidity. Management is multidisciplinary, with collaboration between gastroenterologists, allergists, pathologists, and dieticians, and is aimed at amelioration of symptoms and prevention of long-term complications such as esophageal stricture. Treatment options for EoE include proton pump inhibitors, swallowed topical corticosteroids, and elimination diets. Esophageal dilation is used when esophageal strictures or fibrostenotic changes are present. Additional therapies targeting eosinophils and other mediators of Th2 inflammation are under development and are promising. Treatment options for other EGIDs typically involve corticosteroids or dietary elimination.