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Santos E, Chandra I, Assar Z, Sheng W, Ghanbarpour A, Bingham C, Vasileiou C, Geiger JH, Borhan B. Regulation of Absorption and Emission in a Protein/Fluorophore Complex. ACS Chem Biol 2024; 19:1725-1732. [PMID: 39046136 PMCID: PMC11334107 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.4c00125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 07/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Human cellular retinol binding protein II (hCRBPII) was used as a protein engineering platform to rationally regulate absorptive and emissive properties of a covalently bound fluorogenic dye. We demonstrate the binding of a thio-dapoxyl analog via formation of a protonated imine between an active site lysine residue and the chromophore's aldehyde. Rational manipulation of the electrostatics of the binding pocket results in a 204 nm shift in absorption and a 131 nm shift in emission. The protein is readily expressed in mammalian systems and binds with exogenously delivered fluorophore as demonstrated by live-cell imaging experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ishita Chandra
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Zahra Assar
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Wei Sheng
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Alireza Ghanbarpour
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Courtney Bingham
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Chrysoula Vasileiou
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - James H. Geiger
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Babak Borhan
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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2
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Shahu A, Petropoulos V, Saridakis E, Petrakis VS, Ioannidis N, Mitrikas G, Schiza A, Chochos CL, Kasimati EM, Soultati A, Nika MC, Thomaidis NS, Fakis M, Maiuri M, Cerullo G, Pistolis G. Aggregation-Driven Photoinduced α-C(sp 3)-H Bond Hydroxylation/C(sp 3)-C(sp 3) Coupling of Boron Dipyrromethene Dye in Water Reported by Near-Infrared Emission. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:15659-15665. [PMID: 38819953 PMCID: PMC11190975 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c02019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Molecular aggregation is a powerful tool for tuning advanced materials' photophysical and electronic properties. Here we present a novel potential for the aqueous-solvated aggregated state of boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) to facilitate phototransformations otherwise achievable only under harsh chemical conditions. We show that the photoinduced symmetry-breaking charge separation state can itself initiate catalyst-free redox chemistry, leading to selective α-C(sp3)-H bond activation/Csp3-Csp3 coupling on the BODIPY backbone. The photoproduction progress was tracked by monitoring the evolution of the strong Stokes-shifted near-infrared emission, resulting from selective self-assembly of the terminal heterodimeric photoproduct into well-ordered J-aggregates, as revealed by X-ray structural analysis. These findings provide a facile and green route to further explore the promising frontier of packing-triggered selective photoconversions via supramolecular engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adelajda Shahu
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
| | - Vasilis Petropoulos
- Department
of Physics, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
- Department
of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Emmanuel Saridakis
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
| | - Vyron S. Petrakis
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Ioannidis
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
| | - George Mitrikas
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
| | - Andriana Schiza
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece
- Institute
of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research
Foundation, Athens 11635, Greece
| | - Christos L. Chochos
- Institute
of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research
Foundation, Athens 11635, Greece
| | | | - Anastasia Soultati
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
| | - Maria Christina Nika
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece
| | - Nikolaos S. Thomaidis
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece
| | - Mihalis Fakis
- Department
of Physics, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | | | - Giulio Cerullo
- Department
of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - George Pistolis
- Institute
of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, NCSR
“Demokritos”, Athens 15310, Greece
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3
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Maret PD, Sasikumar D, Sebastian E, Hariharan M. Symmetry-Breaking Charge Separation in a Chiral Bis(perylenediimide) Probed at Ensemble and Single-Molecule Levels. J Phys Chem Lett 2023; 14:8667-8675. [PMID: 37733055 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c01889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Chiral molecular assemblies exhibiting symmetry-breaking charge separation (SB-CS) are potential candidates for the development of chiral organic semiconductors. Herein, we explore the excited-state dynamics of a helically chiral perylenediimide bichromophore (Cy-PDI2) exhibiting SB-CS at the ensemble and single-molecule levels. Solvent polarity-tunable interchromophoric excitonic coupling in chiral Cy-PDI2 facilitates the interplay of SB-CS and excimer formation in the ensemble domain. Analogous to the excited-state dynamics of Cy-PDI2 at the ensemble level, single-molecule fluorescence lifetime traces of Cy-PDI2 depicted long-lived off-states characteristic of the radical ion pair-mediated dark states. The discrete electron transfer and charge separation dynamics in Cy-PDI2 at the single-molecule level are governed by the distinct influence of the local environment. The present study aims at understanding the fundamental excited-state dynamics in chiral organic bichromophores for designing efficient chiral organic semiconductors and applications toward charge transport materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Daniel Maret
- School of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala P.O., Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695551, India
| | - Devika Sasikumar
- School of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala P.O., Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695551, India
| | - Ebin Sebastian
- School of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala P.O., Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695551, India
| | - Mahesh Hariharan
- School of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala P.O., Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695551, India
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4
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Gong J, Zhang H, Zeng Y, Cheng Y, Sun X, Wang P. Combining BN-PAGE and microscopy techniques to investigate pigment-protein complexes and plastid transitions in citrus fruit. PLANT METHODS 2022; 18:124. [PMID: 36403000 PMCID: PMC9675244 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-022-00956-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlorophyll and carotenoids, the most widely distributed lipophilic pigments in plants, contribute to fruit coloration during development and ripening. These pigments are assembled with pigment-protein complexes localized at plastid membrane. Pigment-protein complexes are essential for multiple cellular processes, however, their identity and composition in fruit have yet to be characterized. RESULTS By using BN-PAGE technique in combination with microscopy, we studied pigment-protein complexes and plastid transformation in the purified plastids from the exocarp of citrus fruit. The discontinuous sucrose gradient centrifugation was used to isolate total plastids from kumquat fruit, and the purity of isolated plastids was assessed by microscopy observation and western blot analysis. The isolated plastids at different coloring stages were subjected to pigment autofluorescence observation, western blot, two-dimensional electrophoresis analysis and BN-PAGE assessment. Our results demonstrated that (i) chloroplasts differentiate into chromoplasts during fruit coloring, and this differentiation is accompanied with a decrease in the chlorophyll/carotenoid ratio; (ii) BN-PAGE analysis reveals the profiles of macromolecular protein complexes among different types of plastids in citrus fruit; and (iii) the degradation rate of chlorophyll-protein complexes varies during the transition from chloroplasts to chromoplasts, with the stability generally following the order of LHCII > PS II core > LHC I > PS I core. CONCLUSIONS Our optimized methods for both plastid separation and BN-PAGE assessment provide an opportunity for developing a better understanding of pigment-protein complexes and plastid transitions in plant fruit. These attempts also have the potential for expanding our knowledge on the sub-cellular level synchronism of protein changes and pigment metabolism during the transition from chloroplasts to chromoplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinli Gong
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Efficient and Green Production of Agriculture in Mountainous Areas of Zhejiang Province, College of Horticulture Science, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, 311300, Zhejiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
- National R&D Centre for Citrus Preservation, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Hang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
- National R&D Centre for Citrus Preservation, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Yunliu Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
- National R&D Centre for Citrus Preservation, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Yunjiang Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
- National R&D Centre for Citrus Preservation, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Xuepeng Sun
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Efficient and Green Production of Agriculture in Mountainous Areas of Zhejiang Province, College of Horticulture Science, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, 311300, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Pengwei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Science, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.
- National R&D Centre for Citrus Preservation, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China.
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5
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Montepietra D, Bellingeri M, Ross AM, Scotognella F, Cassi D. Modelling photosystem I as a complex interacting network. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200813. [PMID: 33171073 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we model the excitation energy transfer (EET) of photosystem I (PSI) of the common pea plant Pisum sativum as a complex interacting network. The magnitude of the link energy transfer between nodes/chromophores is computed by Forster resonant energy transfer (FRET) using the pairwise physical distances between chromophores from the PDB 5L8R (Protein Data Bank). We measure the global PSI network EET efficiency adopting well-known network theory indicators: the network efficiency (Eff) and the largest connected component (LCC). We also account the number of connected nodes/chromophores to P700 (CN), a new ad hoc measure we introduce here to indicate how many nodes in the network can actually transfer energy to the P700 reaction centre. We find that when progressively removing the weak links of lower EET, the Eff decreases, while the EET paths integrity (LCC and CN) is still preserved. This finding would show that the PSI is a resilient system owning a large window of functioning feasibility and it is completely impaired only when removing most of the network links. From the study of different types of chromophore, we propose different primary functions within the PSI system: chlorophyll a (CLA) molecules are the central nodes in the EET process, while other chromophore types have different primary functions. Furthermore, we perform nodes removal simulations to understand how the nodes/chromophores malfunctioning may affect PSI functioning. We discover that the removal of the CLA triggers the fastest decrease in the Eff, confirming that CAL is the main contributors to the high EET efficiency. Our outcomes open new perspectives of research, such comparing the PSI energy transfer efficiency of different natural and agricultural plant species and investigating the light-harvesting mechanisms of artificial photosynthesis both in plant agriculture and in the field of solar energy applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Montepietra
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, via Campi, 213/a, 41125 Modena, Italy.,CNR NANO S3, Via Campi 213/A, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - M Bellingeri
- Dipartimento di Scienze Matematiche, Fisiche e Informatiche, Università di Parma, via G.P. Usberti, 7/a, 43124 Parma, Italy.,Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - A M Ross
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - F Scotognella
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.,Center for Nano Science and Technology@PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Giovanni Pascoli, 70/3, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - D Cassi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Matematiche, Fisiche e Informatiche, Università di Parma, via G.P. Usberti, 7/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
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6
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Analysis of Photosynthetic Systems and Their Applications with Mathematical and Computational Models. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10196821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In biological and life science applications, photosynthesis is an important process that involves the absorption and transformation of sunlight into chemical energy. During the photosynthesis process, the light photons are captured by the green chlorophyll pigments in their photosynthetic antennae and further funneled to the reaction center. One of the most important light harvesting complexes that are highly important in the study of photosynthesis is the membrane-attached Fenna–Matthews–Olson (FMO) complex found in the green sulfur bacteria. In this review, we discuss the mathematical formulations and computational modeling of some of the light harvesting complexes including FMO. The most recent research developments in the photosynthetic light harvesting complexes are thoroughly discussed. The theoretical background related to the spectral density, quantum coherence and density functional theory has been elaborated. Furthermore, details about the transfer and excitation of energy in different sites of the FMO complex along with other vital photosynthetic light harvesting complexes have also been provided. Finally, we conclude this review by providing the current and potential applications in environmental science, energy, health and medicine, where such mathematical and computational studies of the photosynthesis and the light harvesting complexes can be readily integrated.
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7
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Chen L, Qu H, Xia L, Liu Y, Jiang H, Sun Y, Liang M, Jiang C. Transcriptome profiling of the fertile parent and sterile hybrid in tea plant flower buds. Hereditas 2019; 156:12. [PMID: 31019434 PMCID: PMC6474060 DOI: 10.1186/s41065-019-0090-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The tea plant is a crucial economic crop. The floral organ development consumes a large amount of nutrients, which affects the leaf yield. To understand the mechanism by which the tea plant produces sterile floral buds, we obtained a sterile tea plant by artificial hybridization. RNA-sequencing based transcriptome analysis was implemented in three samples to determine the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to flower development. Results In this study, a total of 1991 DEGs were identified; 1057 genes were up-regulated and 934 genes were down-regulated in sterile hybrid floral buds. These were mainly distributed in the regulation of biological and metabolic processes. Significantly, auxin biosynthesis genes YUCCA, AUX1 and PIN were dramatically down-regulated, and ARF gene was up-regulated in the sterile hybrid floral buds, and flower development-related genes AP1, AP2 and SPL were changed. A total of 12 energy transfer-related genes were significantly decreased. Furthermore, the expression of 11 transcription factor genes was significantly different. Conclusion The transcriptome analysis suggested that the production of sterile floral buds is a complex bioprocess, and that low auxin-related gene levels result in the formation of sterile floral buds in the tea plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linbo Chen
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Hao Qu
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Lifei Xia
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Yue Liu
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Huibing Jiang
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Yunnan Sun
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Mingzhi Liang
- 1Tea Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Menghai, 666201 China.,Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tea Science, Menghai, 666201 China
| | - Changjun Jiang
- 3State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and Utilization, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036 China
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8
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Tridgett M, Moore-Kelly C, Duprey JLHA, Iturbe LO, Tsang CW, Little HA, Sandhu SK, Hicks MR, Dafforn TR, Rodger A. Linear dichroism of visible-region chromophores using M13 bacteriophage as an alignment scaffold. RSC Adv 2018; 8:29535-29543. [PMID: 30713683 PMCID: PMC6333254 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra05475d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
It is a challenge within the field of biomimetics to recreate the properties of light-harvesting antennae found in plants and photosynthetic bacteria. Attempts to recreate these biological structures typically rely on the alignment of fluorescent moieties via attachment to an inert linear scaffold, e.g. DNA, RNA or amyloid fibrils, to enable Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between attached chromophores. While there has been some success in this approach, refinement of the alignment of the chromophores is often limited, which may limit the efficiency of energy transfer achieved. Here we demonstrate how linear dichroism spectroscopy may be used to ascertain the overall alignment of chromophores bound to the M13 bacteriophage, a model linear scaffold, and demonstrate how this may be used to distinguish between lack of FRET efficiency due to chromophore separation, and chromophore misalignment. This approach will allow the refinement of artificial light-harvesting antennae in a directed fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Tridgett
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Charles Moore-Kelly
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Jean-Louis H A Duprey
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Lorea Orueta Iturbe
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Chi W Tsang
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK
| | - Haydn A Little
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Sandeep K Sandhu
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Matthew R Hicks
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Timothy R Dafforn
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Alison Rodger
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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9
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Baker LA, Habershon S. Photosynthesis, pigment-protein complexes and electronic energy transport: simple models for complicated processes. Sci Prog 2017; 100:313-330. [PMID: 28779762 PMCID: PMC10365183 DOI: 10.3184/003685017x14967574639964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we discuss our recent work on modelling biological pigment-protein complexes, such as the Fenna-Matthews-Olson complex and light-harvesting complex-II, to explain their electronic energy transport properties. In particular, we highlight how a network-based analysis approach, where the light-absorbing pigments are treated as a network of interconnected nodes, can provide a qualitative picture of quantum dynamic energy transport. With this in mind, we demonstrate how other properties such as robustness to environmental changes can be assessed in a simple and computationally tractable manner. Such analyses could prove useful for the design of artificial energy transport networks such as those which might find application in solar cells.
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