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Aizenman AM, Gegenfurtner KR, Goettker A. Oculomotor routines for perceptual judgments. J Vis 2024; 24:3. [PMID: 38709511 PMCID: PMC11078167 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.5.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
In everyday life we frequently make simple visual judgments about object properties, for example, how big or wide is a certain object? Our goal is to test whether there are also task-specific oculomotor routines that support perceptual judgments, similar to the well-established exploratory routines for haptic perception. In a first study, observers saw different scenes with two objects presented in a photorealistic virtual reality environment. Observers were asked to judge which of two objects was taller or wider while gaze was tracked. All tasks were performed with the same set of virtual objects in the same scenes, so that we can compare spatial characteristics of exploratory gaze behavior to quantify oculomotor routines for each task. Width judgments showed fixations around the center of the objects with larger horizontal spread. In contrast, for height judgments, gaze was shifted toward the top of the objects with larger vertical spread. These results suggest specific strategies in gaze behavior that presumably are used for perceptual judgments. To test the causal link between oculomotor behavior and perception, in a second study, observers could freely gaze at the object or we introduced a gaze-contingent setup forcing observers to fixate specific positions on the object. Discrimination performance was similar between free-gaze and the gaze-contingent conditions for width and height judgments. These results suggest that although gaze is adapted for different tasks, performance seems to be based on a perceptual strategy, independent of potential cues that can be provided by the oculomotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avi M Aizenman
- Psychology Department Giessen University, Giessen, Germany
- http://aviaizenman.com/
| | - Karl R Gegenfurtner
- Psychology Department Giessen University, Giessen, Germany
- https://www.allpsych.uni-giessen.de/karl/
| | - Alexander Goettker
- Psychology Department Giessen University, Giessen, Germany
- https://alexgoettker.com/
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2
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Blumer R, Carrero‐Rojas G, Calvo PM, Streicher J, de la Cruz RR, Pastor AM. Proprioceptors in extraocular muscles. Exp Physiol 2024; 109:17-26. [PMID: 36869596 PMCID: PMC10988737 DOI: 10.1113/ep090765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Proprioception is the sense that lets us perceive the location, movement and action of the body parts. The proprioceptive apparatus includes specialized sense organs (proprioceptors) which are embedded in the skeletal muscles. The eyeballs are moved by six pairs of eye muscles and binocular vision depends on fine-tuned coordination of the optical axes of both eyes. Although experimental studies indicate that the brain has access to eye position information, both classical proprioceptors (muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organ) are absent in the extraocular muscles of most mammalian species. This paradox of monitoring extraocular muscle activity in the absence of typical proprioceptors seemed to be resolved when a particular nerve specialization (the palisade ending) was detected in the extraocular muscles of mammals. In fact, for decades there was consensus that palisade endings were sensory structures that provide eye position information. The sensory function was called into question when recent studies revealed the molecular phenotype and the origin of palisade endings. Today we are faced with the fact that palisade endings exhibit sensory as well as motor features. This review aims to evaluate the literature on extraocular muscle proprioceptors and palisade endings and to reconsider current knowledge of their structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Blumer
- Center of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Division of Anatomy, Medical Image ClusterMedical University ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Génova Carrero‐Rojas
- Center of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Division of Anatomy, Medical Image ClusterMedical University ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Paula M. Calvo
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de BiologíaUniversidad de SevillaSevillaSpain
| | - Johannes Streicher
- Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Division of Anatomy and Developmental BiologyKarl Landsteiner University of Health ScienceKrems an der DonauAustria
| | - Rosa R. de la Cruz
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de BiologíaUniversidad de SevillaSevillaSpain
| | - Angel M. Pastor
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de BiologíaUniversidad de SevillaSevillaSpain
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3
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Paduca A, Lundmark PO, Bruenech JR. Does Surgical Resection of Horizontal Extraocular Muscles Disrupt Ocular Proprioceptors? Clin Ophthalmol 2023; 17:1395-1405. [PMID: 37214153 PMCID: PMC10198280 DOI: 10.2147/opth.s381247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose It has been promoted that disturbance of ocular proprioception may play a role in the pathogenesis of concomitant strabismus and other types of oculomotor anomalies. The aim of the study was to obtain knowledge about how surgical foreshortening of the myotendinous region potentially affects the proprioceptors that resides in this area of the muscles and to test the hypothesis that avoiding disruption of ocular proprioceptors result in a more favorable long term postoperative result. Patients and Methods The distal end of the lateral and medial rectus muscles from patients with manifest concomitant strabismus with a deviation of ≥15 prism diopters (PD) were collected during strabismus surgery and processed for light microscopy by standard histochemical techniques. Histological analysis served to differentiate between the tissue samples containing pure tendon, versus samples containing the myotendinous junction. Criteria for successful outcome was defined as a residual angle of deviation less than 10 PD. The binocular status of the patient was measured pre- and post-operatively at 6-months of follow-up. Results Tissue samples from 43 patients (median age 19 years old, range 3-58 years) were collected during surgery. Twenty-six of the samples contained pure tendon, while 17 contained muscle fibres. The evolution of the post-operative result revealed a moderate reduction in the residual angle of deviation in patient-samples containing pure tendon. In contrast, the residual angle of deviation clearly increased in patient-samples containing muscle fibres. The difference between the two groups reached statistical significance after 6 months. Successful outcome was found to be more than three times more likely in cases where surgery was performed in pure tendon, compared to muscle fibres. Conclusion The current study supports the hypothesis that avoiding disruption of ocular proprioceptors, located in the distal myotendinous region, results in a more favorable postoperative result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ala Paduca
- Ophthalmology Department, State University of Medicine and Pharmacy Nicolae Testemitanu, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
| | - Per O Lundmark
- Department of Optometry, Radiography and Lighting Design, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, University of South-Eastern Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
| | - J Richard Bruenech
- Department of Optometry, Radiography and Lighting Design, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, University of South-Eastern Norway, Kongsberg, Norway
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4
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Kissane RWP, Charles JP, Banks RW, Bates KT. The association between muscle architecture and muscle spindle abundance. Sci Rep 2023; 13:2830. [PMID: 36806712 PMCID: PMC9938265 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30044-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Across the human body, skeletal muscles have a broad range of biomechanical roles that employ complex proprioceptive control strategies to successfully execute a desired movement. This information is derived from peripherally located sensory apparatus, the muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organs. The abundance of these sensory organs, particularly muscle spindles, is known to differ considerably across individual muscles. Here we present a comprehensive data set of 119 muscles across the human body including architectural properties (muscle fibre length, mass, pennation angle and physiological cross-sectional area) and statistically test their relationships with absolute spindle number and relative spindle abundance (the residual value of the linear regression of the log-transformed spindle number and muscle mass). These data highlight a significant positive relationship between muscle spindle number and fibre length, emphasising the importance of fibre length as an input into the central nervous system. However, there appears to be no relationship between muscles architecturally optimised to function as displacement specialists and their provision of muscle spindles. Additionally, while there appears to be regional differences in muscle spindle abundance, independent of muscle mass and fibre length, our data provide no support for the hypothesis that muscle spindle abundance is related to anatomical specialisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger W P Kissane
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Science, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK.
| | - James P Charles
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Science, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Robert W Banks
- Department of Biosciences and Biophysical Sciences Institute, University of Durham, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Science, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
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5
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Zhao Z, Ahissar E, Victor JD, Rucci M. Inferring visual space from ultra-fine extra-retinal knowledge of gaze position. Nat Commun 2023; 14:269. [PMID: 36650146 PMCID: PMC9845343 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-35834-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
It has long been debated how humans resolve fine details and perceive a stable visual world despite the incessant fixational motion of their eyes. Current theories assume these processes to rely solely on the visual input to the retina, without contributions from motor and/or proprioceptive sources. Here we show that contrary to this widespread assumption, the visual system has access to high-resolution extra-retinal knowledge of fixational eye motion and uses it to deduce spatial relations. Building on recent advances in gaze-contingent display control, we created a spatial discrimination task in which the stimulus configuration was entirely determined by oculomotor activity. Our results show that humans correctly infer geometrical relations in the absence of spatial information on the retina and accurately combine high-resolution extraretinal monitoring of gaze displacement with retinal signals. These findings reveal a sensory-motor strategy for encoding space, in which fine oculomotor knowledge is used to interpret the fixational input to the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhetuo Zhao
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Ehud Ahissar
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jonathan D Victor
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michele Rucci
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.
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6
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Does path integration contribute to human navigation in large-scale space? Psychon Bull Rev 2022:10.3758/s13423-022-02216-8. [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02216-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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7
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Balslev D, Mitchell AG, Faria PJM, Priba L, Macfarlane JA. Proprioceptive contribution to oculomotor control in humans. Hum Brain Mapp 2022; 43:5081-5090. [PMID: 36135800 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Stretch receptors in the extraocular muscles (EOMs) inform the central nervous system about the rotation of one's own eyes in the orbits. Whereas fine control of the skeletal muscles hinges critically on proprioceptive feedback, the role of proprioception in oculomotor control remains unclear. Human behavioural studies provide evidence for EOM proprioception in oculomotor control, however, behavioural and electrophysiological studies in the macaque do not. Unlike macaques, humans possess numerous muscle spindles in their EOMs. To find out whether the human oculomotor nuclei respond to proprioceptive feedback we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). With their eyes closed, participants placed their right index finger on the eyelid at the outer corner of the right eye. When prompted by a sound, they pushed the eyeball gently and briefly towards the nose. Control conditions separated out motor and tactile task components. The stretch of the right lateral rectus muscle was associated with activation of the left oculomotor nucleus and subthreshold activation of the left abducens nucleus. Because these nuclei control the horizontal movements of the left eye, we hypothesized that proprioceptive stimulation of the right EOM triggered left eye movement. To test this, we followed up with an eye-tracking experiment in complete darkness using the same behavioural task as in the fMRI study. The left eye moved actively in the direction of the passive displacement of the right eye, albeit with a smaller amplitude. Eye tracking corroborated neuroimaging findings to suggest a proprioceptive contribution to ocular alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Balslev
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | | | - Patrick J M Faria
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Lukasz Priba
- Clinical Research Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK
| | - Jennifer A Macfarlane
- Clinical Research Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK.,Medical Physics Department, NHS Tayside, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK
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8
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The trigeminal pathways. J Neurol 2022; 269:3443-3460. [DOI: 10.1007/s00415-022-11002-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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9
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Zieliński G, Filipiak Z, Ginszt M, Matysik-Woźniak A, Rejdak R, Gawda P. The Organ of Vision and the Stomatognathic System-Review of Association Studies and Evidence-Based Discussion. Brain Sci 2021; 12:brainsci12010014. [PMID: 35053758 PMCID: PMC8773770 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The stomatognathic system is a functional complex of tissues and organs located within the oral and craniofacial cavities. The craniofacial anatomical factors and the biomechanics of the temporomandibular joints affect many systems throughout the body, including the organ of vision. However, few scientific reports have shown a relationship between the organ of vision and the stomatognathic system. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of connections along neural, muscle-fascial, and biochemical pathways between the organ of vision and the stomatognathic system. Based on the literature presented in this review, the connections between the organ of vision and the stomatognathic system seem undeniable. Understanding the anatomical, physiological, and biochemical interrelationships may allow to explain the interactions between the mentioned systems. According to the current knowledge, it is not possible to indicate the main linking pathway; presumably, it may be a combination of several presented pathways. The awareness of this relationship among dentists, ophthalmologists, physiotherapists, and optometrists should increase for the better diagnosis and treatment of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz Zieliński
- Department of Sports Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
- Correspondence:
| | - Zuzanna Filipiak
- Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Michał Ginszt
- Department of Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Anna Matysik-Woźniak
- Department of General and Pediatric Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (A.M.-W.); (R.R.)
| | - Robert Rejdak
- Department of General and Pediatric Ophthalmology, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (A.M.-W.); (R.R.)
| | - Piotr Gawda
- Department of Sports Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
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10
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Karsolia A, Stevenson SB, Das VE. Unreferenced spatial localization under monocular and dichoptic viewing conditions. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21341. [PMID: 34725377 PMCID: PMC8560936 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00597-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of eye position in the brain is critical for localization of objects in space. To investigate the accuracy and precision of eye position feedback in an unreferenced environment, subjects with normal ocular alignment attempted to localize briefly presented targets during monocular and dichoptic viewing. In the task, subjects' used a computer mouse to position a response disk at the remembered location of the target. Under dichoptic viewing (with red (right eye)-green (left eye) glasses), target and response disks were presented to the same or alternate eyes, leading to four conditions [green target-green response cue (LL), green-red (LR), red-green (RL), and red-red (RR)]. Time interval between target and response disks was varied and localization errors were the difference between the estimated and real positions of the target disk. Overall, the precision of spatial localization (variance across trials) became progressively worse with time. Under dichoptic viewing, localization errors were significantly greater for alternate-eye trials as compared to same-eye trials and were correlated to the average phoria of each subject. Our data suggests that during binocular dissociation, spatial localization may be achieved by combining a reliable versional efference copy signal with a proprioceptive signal that is unreliable perhaps because it is from the wrong eye or is too noisy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apoorva Karsolia
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Rd, Houston, TX, 77204, USA.
| | - Scott B Stevenson
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Rd, Houston, TX, 77204, USA
| | - Vallabh E Das
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Rd, Houston, TX, 77204, USA
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11
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Cellini B, Salem W, Mongeau JM. Mechanisms of punctuated vision in fly flight. Curr Biol 2021; 31:4009-4024.e3. [PMID: 34329590 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
To guide locomotion, animals control gaze via movements of their eyes, head, and/or body, but how the nervous system controls gaze during complex motor tasks remains elusive. In many animals, shifts in gaze consist of periods of smooth movement punctuated by rapid eye saccades. Notably, eye movements are constrained by anatomical limits, which requires resetting eye position. By studying tethered, flying fruit flies (Drosophila), we show that flies perform stereotyped head saccades to reset gaze, analogous to optokinetic nystagmus in primates. Head-reset saccades interrupted head smooth movement for as little as 50 ms-representing less than 5% of the total flight time-thereby enabling punctuated gaze stabilization. By revealing the passive mechanics of the neck joint, we show that head-reset saccades leverage the neck's natural elastic recoil, enabling mechanically assisted redirection of gaze. The consistent head orientation at saccade initiation, the influence of the head's angular position on saccade rate, the decrease in wing saccade frequency in head-fixed flies, and the decrease in head-reset saccade rate in flies with their head range of motion restricted together implicate proprioception as the primary trigger of head-reset saccades. Wing-reset saccades were influenced by head orientation, establishing a causal link between neck sensory signals and the execution of body saccades. Head-reset saccades were abolished when flies switched to a landing state, demonstrating that head movements are gated by behavioral state. We propose a control architecture for active vision systems with limits in sensor range of motion. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Cellini
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Wael Salem
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Jean-Michel Mongeau
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Eye movements are indispensable for visual image stabilization during self-generated and passive head and body motion and for visual orientation. Eye muscles and neuronal control elements are evolutionarily conserved, with novel behavioral repertoires emerging during the evolution of frontal eyes and foveae. The precise execution of eye movements with different dynamics is ensured by morphologically diverse yet complementary sets of extraocular muscle fibers and associated motoneurons. Singly and multiply innervated muscle fibers are controlled by motoneuronal subpopulations with largely selective premotor inputs from task-specific ocular motor control centers. The morphological duality of the neuromuscular interface is matched by complementary biochemical and molecular features that collectively assign different physiological properties to the motor entities. In contrast, the functionality represents a continuum where most motor elements contribute to any type of eye movement, although within preferential dynamic ranges, suggesting that signal transmission and muscle contractions occur within bands of frequency-selective pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja K E Horn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany;
| | - Hans Straka
- Department Biology II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
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13
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Cottereau BR, Trotter Y, Durand JB. An egocentric straight-ahead bias in primate's vision. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 226:2897-2909. [PMID: 34120262 PMCID: PMC8541962 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02314-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
As we plan to reach or manipulate objects, we generally orient our body so as to face them. Other objects occupying the same portion of space will likely represent potential obstacles for the intended action. Thus, either as targets or as obstacles, the objects located straight in front of us are often endowed with a special behavioral status. Here, we review a set of recent electrophysiological, imaging and behavioral studies bringing converging evidence that the objects which lie straight-ahead are subject to privileged visual processing. More precisely, these works collectively demonstrate that when gaze steers central vision away from the straight-ahead direction, the latter is still prioritized in peripheral vision. Straight-ahead objects evoke (1) stronger neuronal responses in macaque peripheral V1 neurons, (2) stronger EEG and fMRI activations across the human visual cortex and (3) faster reactive hand and eye movements. Here, we discuss the functional implications and underlying mechanisms behind this phenomenon. Notably, we propose that it can be considered as a new type of visuospatial attentional mechanism, distinct from the previously documented classes of endogenous and exogenous attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit R Cottereau
- Centre de Recherche Cerveau Et Cognition, Université de Toulouse, 31052, Toulouse, France. .,Centre National de La Recherche Scientifique, 31055, Toulouse, France.
| | - Yves Trotter
- Centre de Recherche Cerveau Et Cognition, Université de Toulouse, 31052, Toulouse, France.,Centre National de La Recherche Scientifique, 31055, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste Durand
- Centre de Recherche Cerveau Et Cognition, Université de Toulouse, 31052, Toulouse, France.,Centre National de La Recherche Scientifique, 31055, Toulouse, France
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14
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Born RT, Bencomo GM. Illusions, Delusions, and Your Backwards Bayesian Brain: A Biased Visual Perspective. BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2021; 95:272-285. [PMID: 33784667 PMCID: PMC8238803 DOI: 10.1159/000514859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The retinal image is insufficient for determining what is "out there," because many different real-world geometries could produce any given retinal image. Thus, the visual system must infer which external cause is most likely, given both the sensory data and prior knowledge that is either innate or learned via interactions with the environment. We will describe a general framework of "hierarchical Bayesian inference" that we and others have used to explore the role of cortico-cortical feedback in the visual system, and we will further argue that this approach to "seeing" makes our visual systems prone to perceptual errors in a variety of different ways. In this deliberately provocative and biased perspective, we argue that the neuromodulator, dopamine, may be a crucial link between neural circuits performing Bayesian inference and the perceptual idiosyncrasies of people with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T Born
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gianluca M Bencomo
- Department of Computer Science, Whittier College, Whittier, California, USA
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15
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Cohen LM, Rootman DB. Blepharoptosis Repair: External Versus Posterior Approach Surgery: Why I Select One over the Other. Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am 2021; 29:195-208. [PMID: 33906756 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsc.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Ptosis surgery is performed via an anterior/external or posterior/internal approach, primarily defined by the eyelid elevator muscle surgically addressed: the levator complex anteriorly or Muller muscle posteriorly. Posterior ptosis surgery via Muller muscle conjunctival resection is an excellent first choice for cases of mild to moderate ptosis with good levator function, as it is predictable, provides a reliable cosmetic outcome, requires no patient cooperation during surgery, portends a lower rate of reoperation, and rarely leads to lagophthalmos and/or eyelid retraction postoperatively. External levator resection is preferred in patients with severe ocular surface/cicatricial conjunctival disease, shortened fornices, and lesser levator function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza M Cohen
- Division of Orbital and Ophthalmic Plastic Surgery, Doheny and Stein Eye Institutes, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, 300 Stein Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Daniel B Rootman
- Division of Orbital and Ophthalmic Plastic Surgery, Doheny and Stein Eye Institutes, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, 300 Stein Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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16
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Job A, Jaroszynski C, Kavounoudias A, Jaillard A, Delon-Martin C. Functional Connectivity in Chronic Nonbothersome Tinnitus Following Acoustic Trauma: A Seed-Based Resting-State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. Brain Connect 2020; 10:279-291. [DOI: 10.1089/brain.2019.0712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Job
- Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées (IRBA), Brétigny s/Orge, France
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, Grenoble, France
| | - Chloé Jaroszynski
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, Grenoble, France
| | | | | | - Chantal Delon-Martin
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Inserm, U1216, Grenoble Institut Neurosciences, Grenoble, France
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17
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Feldman AG, Zhang L. Eye and head movements and vestibulo-ocular reflex in the context of indirect, referent control of motor actions. J Neurophysiol 2020; 124:115-133. [PMID: 32490708 PMCID: PMC7474454 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00076.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional explanations of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and eye and head movements are revisited by considering two alternative frameworks addressing the question of how the brain controls motor actions. Traditionally, biomechanical and/or computational frameworks reflect the views of several prominent scholars of the past, including Helmholtz and von Holst, who assumed that the brain directly specifies the desired motor outcome and uses efference copy to influence perception. However, empirical studies resulting in the theory of referent control of action and perception (an extension of the equilibrium-point hypothesis) revealed that direct specification of motor outcome is inconsistent with nonlinear properties of motoneurons and with the physical principle that the brain can control motor actions only indirectly, by changing or maintaining the values of neurophysiological parameters that influence, but can remain independent of, biomechanical variables. Some parameters are used to shift the origin (referent) points of spatial frames of reference (FRs) or system of coordinates in which motor actions emerge without being predetermined. Parameters are adjusted until the emergent motor actions meet the task demands. Several physiological parameters and spatial FRs have been identified, supporting the notion of indirect, referent control of movements. Instead of integration of velocity-dependent signals, position-dimensional referent signals underlying head motion can likely be transmitted to motoneurons of extraocular muscles. This would produce compensatory eye movement preventing shifts in gaze during head rotation, even after bilateral destruction of the labyrinths. The referent control framework symbolizes a shift in the paradigm for the understanding of VOR and eye and head movement production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anatol G Feldman
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Lei Zhang
- Institut für Neuroinformatik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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18
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Abstract
A mathematical model and a possible neural mechanism are proposed to account for how fixational drift motion in the retina confers a benefit for the discrimination of high-acuity targets. We show that by simultaneously estimating object shape and eye motion, neurons in visual cortex can compute a higher quality representation of an object by averaging out non-uniformities in the retinal sampling lattice. The model proposes that this is accomplished by two separate populations of cortical neurons - one providing a representation of object shape and another representing eye position or motion - which are coupled through specific multiplicative connections. Combined with recent experimental findings, our model suggests that the visual system may utilize principles not unlike those used in computational imaging for achieving "super-resolution" via camera motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Anderson
- Physics Department and Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Kavitha Ratnam
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Austin Roorda
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Bruno A Olshausen
- School of Optometry, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, and Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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19
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Feord RC, Sumner ME, Pusdekar S, Kalra L, Gonzalez-Bellido PT, Wardill TJ. Cuttlefish use stereopsis to strike at prey. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaay6036. [PMID: 31934631 PMCID: PMC6949036 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay6036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The camera-type eyes of vertebrates and cephalopods exhibit remarkable convergence, but it is currently unknown whether the mechanisms for visual information processing in these brains, which exhibit wildly disparate architecture, are also shared. To investigate stereopsis in a cephalopod species, we affixed "anaglyph" glasses to cuttlefish and used a three-dimensional perception paradigm. We show that (i) cuttlefish have also evolved stereopsis (i.e., the ability to extract depth information from the disparity between left and right visual fields); (ii) when stereopsis information is intact, the time and distance covered before striking at a target are shorter; (iii) stereopsis in cuttlefish works differently to vertebrates, as cuttlefish can extract stereopsis cues from anticorrelated stimuli. These findings demonstrate that although there is convergent evolution in depth computation, cuttlefish stereopsis is likely afforded by a different algorithm than in humans, and not just a different implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. C. Feord
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK
| | - M. E. Sumner
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - S. Pusdekar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - L. Kalra
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - P. T. Gonzalez-Bellido
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Trevor J. Wardill
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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20
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Effect of Visual Feedback on the Eye Position Stability of Patients with AMD. Vision (Basel) 2019; 3:vision3040059. [PMID: 31735860 PMCID: PMC6969921 DOI: 10.3390/vision3040059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The sources of the reduced fixation stability exhibited by patients with central vision loss in the light are relatively well understood, but we have no information on how they control eye position in complete darkness, in the absence of visual error signals. We therefore explored the effect of visual feedback on eye position stability by testing patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and controls with normal vision in the light and in complete darkness. Nine patients (ages 67 to 92 years) and 16 controls (ages 16 to 74 years) were tested binocularly in the light and in complete darkness while remembering the location of a now invisible target. Binocular eye position was recorded with a video-based eye tracker. Results show that eye position stability both in the light and in the dark is worse for patients than for controls and that, for the two groups, eye position stability in the dark is, on average, 5.9 times worse than in the light. Large instability of fixation in patients with AMD was found even in absolute darkness when the scotoma cannot impair vision. These data reflect permanent changes in the oculomotor reference of patients with AMD.
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21
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Gremmler S, Lappe M. Postsaccadic eye position contributes to oculomotor error estimation in saccadic adaptation. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:1909-1917. [PMID: 31533010 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00095.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated whether the proprioceptive eye position signal after the execution of a saccadic eye movement is used to estimate the accuracy of the movement. If so, saccadic adaptation, the mechanism that maintains saccade accuracy, could use this signal in a similar way as it uses visual feedback after the saccade. To manipulate the availability of the proprioceptive eye position signal we utilized the finding that proprioceptive eye position information builds up gradually after a saccade over a time interval comparable to typical saccade latencies. We confined the retention time of gaze at the saccade landing point by asking participants to make fast return saccades to the fixation point that preempt the usability of proprioceptive eye position signals. In five experimental conditions we measured the influence of the visual and proprioceptive feedback, together and separately, on the development of adaptation. We found that the adaptation of the previously shortened saccades in the case of visual feedback being unavailable after the saccade was significantly weaker when the use of proprioceptive eye position information was impaired by fast return saccades. We conclude that adaptation can be driven by proprioceptive eye position feedback.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show that proprioceptive eye position information is used after a saccade to estimate motor error and adapt saccade control. Previous studies on saccadic adaptation focused on visual feedback about saccade accuracy. A multimodal error signal combining visual and proprioceptive information is likely more robust. Moreover, combining proprioceptive and visual measures of saccade performance can be helpful to keep vision, proprioception, and motor control in alignment and produce a coherent representation of space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Gremmler
- Institute of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Markus Lappe
- Institute of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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22
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Bronstein AM. A conceptual model of the visual control of posture. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2019; 248:285-302. [PMID: 31239139 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In order to isolate the visual contribution to the control of postural balance, experiments in which subjects are exposed to large-field visual motion (optokinetic) stimuli are reviewed. In these situations, at motion onset, the visual stimulus signals subject self-motion but inertial (vestibulo-proprioceptive) cues do not. Visually evoked postural responses (VEPR) thus induced can be quickly suppressed by cognitive status or simple repetition of the stimulus, if the inertial self-motion cues available to the subject are reliable. In the conceptual model presented here, the process of assessing the reliability, and degree of matching, of visual and inertial signals is carried out by a General comparator; in turn able to access the Gain control mechanism of the visuo-postural system. Complexity and congruency in the visual stimulus itself are assessed by a Visual comparator, e.g., the presence of motion parallax in the visual stimulus can reverse the sway response direction. VEPR can also be re-oriented according to the position of the eyes in the head and the head on the trunk. This indicates that ocular and cervical proprioceptors must also access the gain control mechanism so that visual stimuli can recruit and silence different postural muscles appropriately. The overall gain of the visuo-postural system is also influenced by less easily defined idiosyncratic factors, such as visual dependence and psychological traits; interestingly both these factors have been found to be associated with poor long term outcome in vestibular disorders. The experimental results and model presented illustrate that the visuo-postural system is a wonderful example of interaction between physics (e.g., stimuli geometry, body dynamics), neuroscience and the border zone between neurology and psycho-somatic medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adolfo M Bronstein
- Neuro-Otology Unit, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Charing Cross Hospital, London, United Kingdom.
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23
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Yu Y, Huang J, Zhang CM, Chen TW, Sandlin DS, Wang SX, Arteaga AA, Allison J, Ou Y, Warren S, May P, Zhu H, Zhou W. Passive eye movements induced by electromagnetic force (EMF) in rats. Zool Res 2019; 40:211-218. [PMID: 31006766 PMCID: PMC6591162 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2019.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate information on eye position in the orbit is available from visual feedback, efference copy of the oculomotor commands and proprioceptive signals from the extraocular muscles (EOM). Whereas visual feedback and oculomotor commands have been extensively studied, central processing of EOM proprioceptive signals remains to be elucidated. A challenge to the field is to develop an approach to induce passive eye movements without physically contacting the eyes. A novel method was developed to generate passive eye movements in rats. A small rare-earth magnet disk (0.7 mm diameter, 0.5 mm thickness) was attached to the surface of a rat's eyeball. A metal rod (5 mm diameter) wrapped with an electromagnetic (EM) coil was placed near the magnet (8-15 mm). By passing currents to the EM coil, electromagnetic force (EMF) was generated and acted upon the magnet and induced passive eye movements. The EMF induced well-defined passive eye movements, whose directions were dependent on current polarity and amplitudes and peak velocities were dependent on current intensity and duration. Peak velocities of the EMF-induced eye movements were linearly related to amplitudes, exhibiting main sequence relationships similar to that of saccades in awake rats and eye movements induced by electrical microstimulation of the abducens nucleus in anesthetized rats. Histological examination showed that repetitive EMF stimulations did not appear to result in damages in the EOM fibers. These results validated the EMF approach as a novel tool to investigate EOM proprioceptive signals and their roles in visual localization and gaze control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Yu
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Jun Huang
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Chun-Ming Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology, First Affiliated Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan Shanxi 030001, China
| | - Tian-Wen Chen
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - David S Sandlin
- MD/PhD Program, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Shao-Xun Wang
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA.,Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Alberto A Arteaga
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Jerome Allison
- Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Yang Ou
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Susan Warren
- Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Paul May
- Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Hong Zhu
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA; E-mail:.,Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
| | - Wu Zhou
- Departments of Otolaryngology and Communicative Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA;E-mail:.,Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA.,Neurology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS 39216, USA
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24
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Morris AP, Krekelberg B. A Stable Visual World in Primate Primary Visual Cortex. Curr Biol 2019; 29:1471-1480.e6. [PMID: 31031112 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.03.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Humans and other primates rely on eye movements to explore visual scenes and to track moving objects. As a result, the image that is projected onto the retina-and propagated throughout the visual cortical hierarchy-is almost constantly changing and makes little sense without taking into account the momentary direction of gaze. How is this achieved in the visual system? Here, we show that in primary visual cortex (V1), the earliest stage of cortical vision, neural representations carry an embedded "eye tracker" that signals the direction of gaze associated with each image. Using chronically implanted multi-electrode arrays, we recorded the activity of neurons in area V1 of macaque monkeys during tasks requiring fast (exploratory) and slow (pursuit) eye movements. Neurons were stimulated with flickering, full-field luminance noise at all times. As in previous studies, we observed neurons that were sensitive to gaze direction during fixation, despite comparable stimulation of their receptive fields. We trained a decoder to translate neural activity into metric estimates of gaze direction. This decoded signal tracked the eye accurately not only during fixation but also during fast and slow eye movements. After a fast eye movement, the eye-position signal arrived in V1 at approximately the same time at which the new visual information arrived from the retina. Using simulations, we show that this V1 eye-position signal could be used to take into account the sensory consequences of eye movements and map the fleeting positions of objects on the retina onto their stable position in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam P Morris
- Neuroscience Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Physiology, Monash University, 26 Innovation Walk, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Bart Krekelberg
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 197 University Ave., Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
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25
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Minakaran N, Soorma T, Bronstein AM, Plant GT. Charles Bonnet syndrome and periodic alternating nystagmus: Moving visual hallucinations. Neurology 2019; 92:e1072-e1075. [PMID: 30700594 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000007033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe and discuss potential mechanisms for modulation of visual hallucinations by nystagmus. METHODS We present 2 patients with coexistent Charles Bonnet syndrome and periodic alternating nystagmus in the context of acquired visual loss. RESULTS The combination has given rise to a rare phenomenon: visual hallucinations that move in a manner governed by the nystagmus, specifically by the direction and velocity of the slow phase. The perceived modulation of movement is selective for a surface in one case and a landscape in the other but not present for hallucinated individual objects and people separate from the hallucinated background visual scene. CONCLUSIONS The collision of Charles Bonnet syndrome and periodic alternating nystagmus in these 2 patients has demonstrated that some visual hallucinations can be modulated by, or collaterally with, ocular movements. We propose 2 potential mechanisms based on ocular proprioceptive input from extraocular muscles projecting to either extrastriate processing of visual scene, or to higher-order visual cortical areas involved in analysis of motion signals across the whole visual field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Minakaran
- From Moorfields Eye Hospital (N.M., T.S., G.T.P.), London; Imperial College London (A.M.B.); and The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (A.M.B., G.T.P.), London, UK
| | - Talha Soorma
- From Moorfields Eye Hospital (N.M., T.S., G.T.P.), London; Imperial College London (A.M.B.); and The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (A.M.B., G.T.P.), London, UK
| | - Adolfo M Bronstein
- From Moorfields Eye Hospital (N.M., T.S., G.T.P.), London; Imperial College London (A.M.B.); and The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (A.M.B., G.T.P.), London, UK
| | - Gordon T Plant
- From Moorfields Eye Hospital (N.M., T.S., G.T.P.), London; Imperial College London (A.M.B.); and The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (A.M.B., G.T.P.), London, UK.
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26
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Conte A, Belvisi D, De Bartolo MI, Manzo N, Cortese FN, Tartaglia M, Ferrazzano G, Fabbrini G, Berardelli A. Abnormal sensory gating in patients with different types of focal dystonias. Mov Disord 2018; 33:1910-1917. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.27530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Conte
- Department of Human Neurosciences; Sapienza, University of Rome; Rome Italy
- IRCCS NEUROMED; Pozzilli IS Italy
| | | | | | - Nicoletta Manzo
- Department of Human Neurosciences; Sapienza, University of Rome; Rome Italy
| | | | - Matteo Tartaglia
- Department of Human Neurosciences; Sapienza, University of Rome; Rome Italy
| | | | - Giovanni Fabbrini
- Department of Human Neurosciences; Sapienza, University of Rome; Rome Italy
- IRCCS NEUROMED; Pozzilli IS Italy
| | - Alfredo Berardelli
- Department of Human Neurosciences; Sapienza, University of Rome; Rome Italy
- IRCCS NEUROMED; Pozzilli IS Italy
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27
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A. White
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
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28
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Milleret C, Bui Quoc E. Beyond Rehabilitation of Acuity, Ocular Alignment, and Binocularity in Infantile Strabismus. Front Syst Neurosci 2018; 12:29. [PMID: 30072876 PMCID: PMC6058758 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2018.00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Infantile strabismus impairs the perception of all attributes of the visual scene. High spatial frequency components are no longer visible, leading to amblyopia. Binocularity is altered, leading to the loss of stereopsis. Spatial perception is impaired as well as detection of vertical orientation, the fastest movements, directions of movement, the highest contrasts and colors. Infantile strabismus also affects other vision-dependent processes such as control of postural stability. But presently, rehabilitative therapies for infantile strabismus by ophthalmologists, orthoptists and optometrists are restricted to preventing or curing amblyopia of the deviated eye, aligning the eyes and, whenever possible, preserving or restoring binocular vision during the critical period of development, i.e., before ~10 years of age. All the other impairments are thus ignored; whether they may recover after strabismus treatment even remains unknown. We argue here that medical and paramedical professionals may extend their present treatments of the perceptual losses associated with infantile strabismus. This hypothesis is based on findings from fundamental research on visual system organization of higher mammals in particular at the cortical level. In strabismic subjects (as in normal-seeing ones), information about all of the visual attributes converge, interact and are thus inter-dependent at multiple levels of encoding ranging from the single neuron to neuronal assemblies in visual cortex. Thus if the perception of one attribute is restored this may help to rehabilitate the perception of other attributes. Concomitantly, vision-dependent processes may also improve. This could occur spontaneously, but still should be assessed and validated. If not, medical and paramedical staff, in collaboration with neuroscientists, will have to break new ground in the field of therapies to help reorganize brain circuitry and promote more comprehensive functional recovery. Findings from fundamental research studies in both young and adult patients already support our hypothesis and are reviewed here. For example, presenting different contrasts to each eye of a strabismic patient during training sessions facilitates recovery of acuity in the amblyopic eye as well as of 3D perception. Recent data also demonstrate that visual recoveries in strabismic subjects improve postural stability. These findings form the basis for a roadmap for future research and clinical development to extend presently applied rehabilitative therapies for infantile strabismus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Milleret
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, College de France, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Bui Quoc
- Department of Ophthalmology, Robert Debré University Hospital, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris Paris, France
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29
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Lienbacher K, Ono S, Fleuriet J, Mustari M, Horn AKE. A Subset of Palisade Endings Only in the Medial and Inferior Rectus Muscle in Monkey Contain Calretinin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2018; 59:2944-2954. [PMID: 30025142 PMCID: PMC5989861 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-24322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To further chemically characterize palisade endings in extraocular muscles in rhesus monkeys. Methods Extraocular muscles of three rhesus monkeys were studied for expression of the calcium-binding protein calretinin (CR) in palisade endings and multiple endings. The complete innervation was visualized with antibodies against the synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa and combined with immunofluorescence for CR. Six rhesus monkeys received tracer injections of choleratoxin subunit B or wheat germ agglutinin into either the belly or distal myotendinous junction of the medial or inferior rectus muscle to allow retrograde tracing in the C-group of the oculomotor nucleus. Double-immunofluorescence methods were used to study the CR content in retrogradely labeled neurons in the C-group. Results A subgroup of palisade and multiple endings was found to express CR, only in the medial and inferior rectus muscle. In contrast, the en plaque endings lacked CR. Accordingly, within the tracer-labeled neurons of the C-group, a subgroup expressed CR. Conclusions The study indicates that two different neuron populations targeting nontwitch muscle fibers are present within the C-group for inferior rectus and medial rectus, respectively, one expressing CR, one lacking CR. It is possible that the CR-negative neurons represent the basic population for all extraocular muscles, whereas the CR-positive neurons giving rise to CR-positive palisade endings represent a specialized, perhaps more excitable type of nerve ending in the medial and inferior rectus muscles, being more active in vergence. The malfunction of this CR-positive population of neurons that target nontwitch muscle fibers could play a significant role in strabismus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karoline Lienbacher
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
- German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, Klinikum Grosshadern, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität, Munich, Germany
| | - Seiji Ono
- Faculty of Health and Sport Science, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Jérome Fleuriet
- Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States
| | - Michael Mustari
- Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States
| | - Anja K. E. Horn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
- German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, Klinikum Grosshadern, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität, Munich, Germany
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30
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Parr T, Friston KJ. Active inference and the anatomy of oculomotion. Neuropsychologia 2018; 111:334-343. [PMID: 29407941 PMCID: PMC5884328 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.01.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Given that eye movement control can be framed as an inferential process, how are the requisite forces generated to produce anticipated or desired fixation? Starting from a generative model based on simple Newtonian equations of motion, we derive a variational solution to this problem and illustrate the plausibility of its implementation in the oculomotor brainstem. We show, through simulation, that the Bayesian filtering equations that implement 'planning as inference' can generate both saccadic and smooth pursuit eye movements. Crucially, the associated message passing maps well onto the known connectivity and neuroanatomy of the brainstem - and the changes in these messages over time are strikingly similar to single unit recordings of neurons in the corresponding nuclei. Furthermore, we show that simulated lesions to axonal pathways reproduce eye movement patterns of neurological patients with damage to these tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Parr
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Karl J Friston
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
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31
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Brownstone RM, Lancelin C. Escape from homeostasis: spinal microcircuits and progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurophysiol 2018; 119:1782-1794. [PMID: 29384454 PMCID: PMC6008087 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00331.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), loss of motoneuron function leads to weakness and, ultimately, respiratory failure and death. Regardless of the initial pathogenic factors, motoneuron loss follows a specific pattern: the largest α-motoneurons die before smaller α-motoneurons, and γ-motoneurons are spared. In this article, we examine how homeostatic responses to this orderly progression could lead to local microcircuit dysfunction that in turn propagates motoneuron dysfunction and death. We first review motoneuron diversity and the principle of α-γ coactivation and then discuss two specific spinal motoneuron microcircuits: those involving proprioceptive afferents and those involving Renshaw cells. Next, we propose that the overall homeostatic response of the nervous system is aimed at maintaining force output. Thus motoneuron degeneration would lead to an increase in inputs to motoneurons, and, because of the pattern of neuronal degeneration, would result in an imbalance in local microcircuit activity that would overwhelm initial homeostatic responses. We suggest that this activity would ultimately lead to excitotoxicity of motoneurons, which would hasten the progression of disease. Finally, we propose that should this be the case, new therapies targeted toward microcircuit dysfunction could slow the course of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Brownstone
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, University College London , London , United Kingdom
| | - Camille Lancelin
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, University College London , London , United Kingdom
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Paduca A, Bruenech JR. Neuroanatomical Structures in Human Extraocular Muscles and Their Potential Implication in the Development of Oculomotor Disorders. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 2018; 55:14-22. [PMID: 28991350 DOI: 10.3928/01913913-20170703-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The potential role of sensory feedback from human extraocular muscles has been subjected to considerable speculation in the ophthalmic literature. Extraocular muscles pull against a fairly even load and do not initiate a stretch reflex, even when the eyes are directed toward the boundaries of their respective field of action. These unique working conditions and physiological properties have led to the notion that the sensory signal arising from receptors in extraocular muscles differs from the conventional proprioceptive signal arising from their somatic counterparts. The interest in the receptors at the myotendinous junction of human extraocular muscles has been renewed due to their alleged role in the development of binocular vision and their potential implication in the etiology of binocular vision anomalies. The idea that extraocular muscles provide knowledge of eye position and whether this function can be affected by surgical intervention has initiated several clinical and neuroanatomical studies. Many of these studies support this concept and suggest that surgical procedures that impose only minimal interference with the proprioceptive signal will give a better postoperative result. However, other studies contradict this view because the afferent capacity of the receptors can be questioned and some uncertainties remain. The purpose of this study was to review the related literature and discuss the possible role of ocular proprioceptors in relation to binocular vision and the development of eye motility disorders. [J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2018;55(1):14-22.].
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Population-scale organization of cerebellar granule neuron signaling during a visuomotor behavior. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16240. [PMID: 29176570 PMCID: PMC5701187 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15938-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Granule cells at the input layer of the cerebellum comprise over half the neurons in the human brain and are thought to be critical for learning. However, little is known about granule neuron signaling at the population scale during behavior. We used calcium imaging in awake zebrafish during optokinetic behavior to record transgenically identified granule neurons throughout a cerebellar population. A significant fraction of the population was responsive at any given time. In contrast to core precerebellar populations, granule neuron responses were relatively heterogeneous, with variation in the degree of rectification and the balance of positive versus negative changes in activity. Functional correlations were strongest for nearby cells, with weak spatial gradients in the degree of rectification and the average sign of response. These data open a new window upon cerebellar function and suggest granule layer signals represent elementary building blocks under-represented in core sensorimotor pathways, thereby enabling the construction of novel patterns of activity for learning.
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Echoes on the motor network: how internal motor control structures afford sensory experience. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 222:3865-3888. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-017-1484-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Bohlen MO, Warren S, May PJ. A central mesencephalic reticular formation projection to medial rectus motoneurons supplying singly and multiply innervated extraocular muscle fibers. J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:2000-2018. [PMID: 28177529 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
We recently demonstrated a bilateral projection to the supraoculomotor area from the central mesencephalic reticular formation (cMRF), a region implicated in horizontal gaze changes. C-group motoneurons, which supply multiply innervated fibers in the medial rectus muscle, are located within the primate supraoculomotor area, but their inputs and function are poorly understood. Here, we tested whether C-group motoneurons in Macaca fascicularis monkeys receive a direct cMRF input by injecting this portion of the reticular formation with anterograde tracers in combination with injection of retrograde tracer into the medial rectus muscle. The results indicate that the cMRF provides a dense, bilateral projection to the region of the medial rectus C-group motoneurons. Numerous close associations between labeled terminals and each multiply innervated fiber motoneuron were present. Within the oculomotor nucleus, a much sparser ipsilateral projection onto some of the A- and B- group medial rectus motoneurons that supply singly innervated fibers was observed. Ultrastructural analysis demonstrated a direct synaptic linkage between anterogradely labeled reticular terminals and retrogradely labeled medial rectus motoneurons in all three groups. These findings reinforce the notion that the cMRF is a critical hub for oculomotility by proving that it contains premotor neurons supplying horizontal extraocular muscle motoneurons. The differences between the cMRF input patterns for C-group versus A- and B-group motoneurons suggest the C-group motoneurons serve a different oculomotor role than the others. The similar patterns of cMRF input to C-group motoneurons and preganglionic Edinger-Westphal motoneurons suggest that medial rectus C-group motoneurons may play a role in accommodation-related vergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin O Bohlen
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Susan Warren
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Paul J May
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi.,Department of Ophthalmology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi.,Department of Neurology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
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Abstract
We examined the factors that influence ocular fixation control in adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) including sensory information, individuals' motor characteristics, and inhibitory control. The ASD group showed difficulty in maintaining fixation especially when there was no fixation target. The fixational eye movement characteristics of individuals were consistent regardless of the presence or absence of a fixation target in the controls, but not in the ASD group. Additionally, fixation stability did not correlate with an ability to suppress reflexive saccades measured by an antisaccade task. These findings suggest that ASD adults have deficits in converting alternative sensory information, such as retinal signals in the peripheral visual field or extraretinal signals, to motor commands when the foveal information is unavailable.
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Bohlen MO, Warren S, Mustari MJ, May PJ. Examination of feline extraocular motoneuron pools as a function of muscle fiber innervation type and muscle layer. J Comp Neurol 2016; 525:919-935. [PMID: 27588695 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
This study explores two points related to the pattern of innervation of the extraocular muscles. First, species differences exist in the location of the motoneurons supplying multiply innervated fibers (MIFs) and singly innervated fibers (SIFs) in eye muscles. MIF motoneurons are located outside the extraocular nuclei in primates, but are intermixed with SIF motoneurons within rat extraocular nuclei. To test whether this difference is related to visual capacity and frontal placement of eyes, we injected retrograde tracers into the medial rectus muscle of the cat, a highly visual nonprimate with frontally placed eyes. Distal injections labeled smaller MIF motoneurons located ventrolaterally and rostrally within the oculomotor nucleus (III). More central injections also labeled a separate population of larger cells located dorsally in III. Thus, the cat shares with the nocturnal rat the feature of having MIF motoneurons located within the bounds of III. On the other hand, just as with monkeys, cats show segregation of the MIF and SIF medial rectus motoneuron pools, albeit in a different pattern. Second, extraocular muscles are divided into two layers; the inner, global layer inserts into the sclera, and the outer, orbital layer inserts into the connective tissue pulley. To test whether these layers are supplied by anatomically discrete motoneuron pools, we injected tracer into the orbital layer of the cat lateral rectus muscle. No evidence of either morphological or distributional differences was found, suggesting that the functional differences in these layers may be due mainly to their orbital anatomy, not their innervation. J. Comp. Neurol. 525:919-935, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin O Bohlen
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, 39216
| | - Susan Warren
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, 39216
| | - Michael J Mustari
- National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195
| | - Paul J May
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, 39216.,Department of Ophthalmology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, 39216.,Department of Neurology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, 39216
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Sun LD, Goldberg ME. Corollary Discharge and Oculomotor Proprioception: Cortical Mechanisms for Spatially Accurate Vision. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2016; 2:61-84. [PMID: 28532350 PMCID: PMC5691365 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-082114-035407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A classic problem in psychology is understanding how the brain creates a stable and accurate representation of space for perception and action despite a constantly moving eye. Two mechanisms have been proposed to solve this problem: Herman von Helmholtz's idea that the brain uses a corollary discharge of the motor command that moves the eye to adjust the visual representation, and Sir Charles Sherrington's idea that the brain measures eye position to calculate a spatial representation. Here, we discuss the cognitive, neuropsychological, and physiological mechanisms that support each of these ideas. We propose that both are correct: A rapid corollary discharge signal remaps the visual representation before an impending saccade, computing accurate movement vectors; and an oculomotor proprioceptive signal enables the brain to construct a more accurate craniotopic representation of space that develops slowly after the saccade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linus D Sun
- Mahoney-Keck Center for Brain and Behavior Research, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032;
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032
- Department of Ophthalmology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032
| | - Michael E Goldberg
- Mahoney-Keck Center for Brain and Behavior Research, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032;
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032
- Department of Ophthalmology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032
- Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032
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Thomas NM, Bampouras TM, Donovan T, Dewhurst S. Eye Movements Affect Postural Control in Young and Older Females. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 8:216. [PMID: 27695412 PMCID: PMC5025428 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual information is used for postural stabilization in humans. However, little is known about how eye movements prevalent in everyday life interact with the postural control system in older individuals. Therefore, the present study assessed the effects of stationary gaze fixations, smooth pursuits, and saccadic eye movements, with combinations of absent, fixed and oscillating large-field visual backgrounds to generate different forms of retinal flow, on postural control in healthy young and older females. Participants were presented with computer generated visual stimuli, whilst postural sway and gaze fixations were simultaneously assessed with a force platform and eye tracking equipment, respectively. The results showed that fixed backgrounds and stationary gaze fixations attenuated postural sway. In contrast, oscillating backgrounds and smooth pursuits increased postural sway. There were no differences regarding saccades. There were also no differences in postural sway or gaze errors between age groups in any visual condition. The stabilizing effect of the fixed visual stimuli show how retinal flow and extraocular factors guide postural adjustments. The destabilizing effect of oscillating visual backgrounds and smooth pursuits may be related to more challenging conditions for determining body shifts from retinal flow, and more complex extraocular signals, respectively. Because the older participants matched the young group's performance in all conditions, decreases of posture and gaze control during stance may not be a direct consequence of healthy aging. Further research examining extraocular and retinal mechanisms of balance control and the effects of eye movements, during locomotion, is needed to better inform fall prevention interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil M Thomas
- Active Ageing Research Group, Department of Medical and Sport Sciences, University of Cumbria Lancaster, UK
| | - Theodoros M Bampouras
- Active Ageing Research Group, Department of Medical and Sport Sciences, University of Cumbria Lancaster, UK
| | - Tim Donovan
- Active Ageing Research Group, Department of Medical and Sport Sciences, University of Cumbria Lancaster, UK
| | - Susan Dewhurst
- Active Ageing Research Group, Department of Medical and Sport Sciences, University of Cumbria Lancaster, UK
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40
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Feldman AG. Active sensing without efference copy: referent control of perception. J Neurophysiol 2016; 116:960-76. [PMID: 27306668 PMCID: PMC5009211 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00016.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although action and perception are different behaviors, they are likely to be interrelated, as implied by the notions of perception-action coupling and active sensing. Traditionally, it has been assumed that the nervous system directly preprograms motor commands required for actions and uses a copy of them called efference copy (EC) to also influence our senses. This review offers a critical analysis of the EC concept by identifying its limitations. An alternative to the EC concept is based on the experimentally confirmed notion that sensory signals from receptors are perceived relative to referent signals specified by the brain. These referents also underlie the control of motor actions by predetermining where, in the spatial domain, muscles can work without preprogramming how they should work in terms of motor commands or EC. This approach helps solve several problems of action and explain several sensory experiences, including position sense and the sense that the world remains stationary despite changes in its retinal image during eye or body motion (visual space constancy). The phantom limb phenomenon and other kinesthetic illusions are also explained within this framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anatol G Feldman
- Department of Neuroscience and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; and Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation of Greater Montreal (CRIR), Montreal, QC, Canada
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41
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Mirza MB, Adams RA, Mathys CD, Friston KJ. Scene Construction, Visual Foraging, and Active Inference. Front Comput Neurosci 2016; 10:56. [PMID: 27378899 PMCID: PMC4906014 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2016.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper describes an active inference scheme for visual searches and the perceptual synthesis entailed by scene construction. Active inference assumes that perception and action minimize variational free energy, where actions are selected to minimize the free energy expected in the future. This assumption generalizes risk-sensitive control and expected utility theory to include epistemic value; namely, the value (or salience) of information inherent in resolving uncertainty about the causes of ambiguous cues or outcomes. Here, we apply active inference to saccadic searches of a visual scene. We consider the (difficult) problem of categorizing a scene, based on the spatial relationship among visual objects where, crucially, visual cues are sampled myopically through a sequence of saccadic eye movements. This means that evidence for competing hypotheses about the scene has to be accumulated sequentially, calling upon both prediction (planning) and postdiction (memory). Our aim is to highlight some simple but fundamental aspects of the requisite functional anatomy; namely, the link between approximate Bayesian inference under mean field assumptions and functional segregation in the visual cortex. This link rests upon the (neurobiologically plausible) process theory that accompanies the normative formulation of active inference for Markov decision processes. In future work, we hope to use this scheme to model empirical saccadic searches and identify the prior beliefs that underwrite intersubject variability in the way people forage for information in visual scenes (e.g., in schizophrenia).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Berk Mirza
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London London, UK
| | - Rick A Adams
- Division of Psychiatry, University College LondonLondon, UK; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College LondonLondon, UK
| | - Christoph D Mathys
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College LondonLondon, UK; Translational Neuromodeling Unit, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETHZ)Zurich, Switzerland; Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing ResearchLondon, UK
| | - Karl J Friston
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London London, UK
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42
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Proske U. The role of muscle proprioceptors in human limb position sense: a hypothesis. J Anat 2015; 227:178-83. [PMID: 25973697 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In this mini-review I have proposed that there are two kinds of position sense, one a sense of the position of one part of the body relative to another, the other a sense of the location in space of our body and its limbs. A common method used to measure position sense is to ask subjects to match with one arm the position adopted by the other. Here all of the evidence points to muscle spindles as the major proprioceptors, with cutaneous receptors acting as proprioceptors providing a supporting role. Other senses such as vision do not play a major role. The sense of localisation in space measured by pointing to the arm, rather than matching its position, I propose, is not served by proprioceptors but by exteroceptors, vision, touch and hearing. Here the afferent input is relayed to sensory areas of the brain, to address the postural schema, a cortical map of the body and limbs, specifying its size and shape. It is here that spatial location is computed. This novel interpretation of position sense as two separate entities has the advantage of proposing new, future experiments and if it is supported by the findings, it will represent an important step forward in our understanding of the central processing of spatial information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Proske
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
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43
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Blazquez PM, Yakusheva TA. GABA-A Inhibition Shapes the Spatial and Temporal Response Properties of Purkinje Cells in the Macaque Cerebellum. Cell Rep 2015; 11:1043-53. [PMID: 25959822 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Data from in vitro and anesthetized preparations indicate that inhibition plays a major role in cerebellar cortex function. We investigated the role of GABA-A inhibition in the macaque cerebellar ventral-paraflocculus while animals performed oculomotor behaviors that are known to engage the circuit. We recorded Purkinje cell responses to these behaviors with and without application of gabazine, a GABA-A receptor antagonist, near the recorded neuron. Gabazine increased the neuronal responsiveness to saccades in all directions and the neuronal gain to VOR cancellation and pursuit, most significantly the eye and head velocity sensitivity. L-glutamate application indicated that these changes were not the consequence of increases in baseline firing rate. Importantly, gabazine did not affect behavior or efference copy, suggesting that only local computations were disrupted. Our data, collected while the cerebellum performs behaviorally relevant computations, indicate that inhibition is a potent regulatory mechanism for the control of input-output gain and spatial tuning in the cerebellar cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo M Blazquez
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University School of Medicine, 4566 Scott Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Tatyana A Yakusheva
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University School of Medicine, 4566 Scott Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Disrupting saccadic updating: visual interference prior to the first saccade elicits spatial errors in the secondary saccade in a double-step task. Exp Brain Res 2015; 233:1893-905. [PMID: 25832623 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-015-4261-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
When we explore the visual environment around us, we produce sequences of very precise eye movements aligning the objects of interest with the most sensitive part of the retina for detailed visual processing. A copy of the impending motor command, the corollary discharge, is sent as soon as the first saccade in a sequence is ready to monitor the next fixation location and correctly plan the subsequent eye movement. Neurophysiological investigations have shown that chemical interference with the corollary discharge generates a distinct pattern of spatial errors on sequential eye movements, with similar results also from clinical and TMS studies. Here, we used saccadic inhibition to interfere with the temporal domain of the first of two subsequent saccades during a standard double-step paradigm. In two experiments, we report that the temporal interference on the primary saccade led to a specific error in the final landing position of the second saccade that was consistent with previous lesion and neurophysiological studies, but without affecting the spatial characteristics of the first eye movement. On the other hand, single-step saccades were differently influence by the flash, with a general undershoot, more pronounced for larger saccadic amplitude. These findings show that a flashed visual transient can disrupt saccadic updating in a double-step task, possibly due to the mismatch between the planned and the executed saccadic eye movement.
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45
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Tang X, Büttner-Ennever JA, Mustari MJ, Horn AKE. Internal organization of medial rectus and inferior rectus muscle neurons in the C group of the oculomotor nucleus in monkey. J Comp Neurol 2015; 523:1809-23. [PMID: 25684641 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 02/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian extraocular muscles contain singly innervated twitch muscle fibers (SIF) and multiply innervated nontwitch muscle fibers (MIF). In monkey, MIF motoneurons lie around the periphery of oculomotor nuclei and have premotor inputs different from those of the motoneurons inside the nuclei. The most prominent MIF motoneuron group is the C group, which innervates the medial rectus (MR) and inferior rectus (IR) muscle. To explore the organization of both cell groups within the C group, we performed small injections of choleratoxin subunit B into the myotendinous junction of MR or IR in monkeys. In three animals the IR and MR myotendinous junction of one eye was injected simultaneously with different tracers (choleratoxin subunit B and wheat germ agglutinin). This revealed that both muscles were supplied by two different, nonoverlapping populations in the C group. The IR neurons lie adjacent to the dorsomedial border of the oculomotor nucleus, whereas MR neurons are located farther medially. A striking feature was the differing pattern of dendrite distribution of both cell groups. Whereas the dendrites of IR neurons spread into the supraoculomotor area bilaterally, those of the MR neurons were restricted to the ipsilateral side and sent a focused bundle dorsally to the preganglionic neurons of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which are involved in the "near response." In conclusion, MR and IR are innervated by independent neuron populations from the C group. Their dendritic branching pattern within the supraoculomotor area indicates a participation in the near response providing vergence but also reflects their differing functional roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofang Tang
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, D-80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Jean A Büttner-Ennever
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, D-80336, Munich, Germany
| | - Michael J Mustari
- Washington National Primate Research Center and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195
| | - Anja K E Horn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, D-80336, Munich, Germany
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Removing Barriers to Athlete Performance Enhancement: A Hermeneutic Case Study of Observed and Experiential Integration. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1123/jcsp.2014-0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study was the first to explore the treatment effects of observed and experiential integration (OEI) therapy for the salient psychological barriers to performance experienced by athletes. The hermeneutic single case efficacy design was used to explore the relationship between OEI therapy and athlete psychological functioning. The participant was a student-athlete who met the criteria for the performance dysfunction (multilevel classification system of Sport psychology) category, which indicates that subclinical issues were present. After five phases of data collection, a rich case record was compiled and referenced to develop skeptic and affirmative briefs and corresponding rebuttals by two research teams of three experts (OEI clinician, non-OEI clinician, and sport expert). Three independent judges adjudicated the cases and unanimously concluded that the client changed considerably to substantially and that OEI, the therapeutic relationship, and client expectancy were active variables in the change process.
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47
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging of sensorimotor transformations in saccades and antisaccades. Neuroimage 2014; 102 Pt 2:848-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Bui Quoc E, Milleret C. Origins of strabismus and loss of binocular vision. Front Integr Neurosci 2014; 8:71. [PMID: 25309358 PMCID: PMC4174748 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2014.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Strabismus is a frequent ocular disorder that develops early in life in humans. As a general rule, it is characterized by a misalignment of the visual axes which most often appears during the critical period of visual development. However other characteristics of strabismus may vary greatly among subjects, for example, being convergent or divergent, horizontal or vertical, with variable angles of deviation. Binocular vision may also vary greatly. Our main goal here is to develop the idea that such “polymorphy” reflects a wide variety in the possible origins of strabismus. We propose that strabismus must be considered as possibly resulting from abnormal genetic and/or acquired factors, anatomical and/or functional abnormalities, in the sensory and/or the motor systems, both peripherally and/or in the brain itself. We shall particularly develop the possible “central” origins of strabismus. Indeed, we are convinced that it is time now to open this “black box” in order to move forward. All of this will be developed on the basis of both presently available data in literature (including most recent data) and our own experience. Both data in biology and medicine will be referred to. Our conclusions will hopefully help ophthalmologists to better understand strabismus and to develop new therapeutic strategies in the future. Presently, physicians eliminate or limit the negative effects of such pathology both on the development of the visual system and visual perception through the use of optical correction and, in some cases, extraocular muscle surgery. To better circumscribe the problem of the origins of strabismus, including at a cerebral level, may improve its management, in particular with respect to binocular vision, through innovating tools by treating the pathology at the source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Bui Quoc
- Ophthalmology Department, Hopital Robert Debre/Assistance Publique Hopitaux de Paris Paris, France
| | - Chantal Milleret
- Collège de France, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Spatial Navigation and Memory Team Paris, France
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Abstract
Saccadic eye movements facilitate rapid and efficient exploration of visual scenes, but also pose serious challenges to establishing reliable spatial representations. This process presumably depends on extraretinal information about eye position, but it is still unclear whether afferent or efferent signals are implicated and how these signals are combined with the visual input. Using a novel gaze-contingent search paradigm with highly controlled retinal stimulation, we examined the performance of human observers in locating a previously fixated target after a variable number of saccades, a task that generates contrasting predictions for different updating mechanisms. We show that while localization accuracy is unaffected by saccades, localization precision deteriorates nonlinearly, revealing a statistically optimal combination of retinal and extraretinal signals. These results provide direct evidence for optimal multimodal integration in the updating of spatial representations and elucidate the contributions of corollary discharge signals and eye proprioception.
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