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Brauer VS, Pessoni AM, Freitas MS, Cavalcanti-Neto MP, Ries LNA, Almeida F. Chitin Biosynthesis in Aspergillus Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9010089. [PMID: 36675910 PMCID: PMC9865612 DOI: 10.3390/jof9010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The fungal cell wall (FCW) is a dynamic structure responsible for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis, and is essential for modulating the interaction of the fungus with its environment. It is composed of proteins, lipids, pigments and polysaccharides, including chitin. Chitin synthesis is catalyzed by chitin synthases (CS), and up to eight CS-encoding genes can be found in Aspergillus species. This review discusses in detail the chitin synthesis and regulation in Aspergillus species, and how manipulation of chitin synthesis pathways can modulate fungal growth, enzyme production, virulence and susceptibility to antifungal agents. More specifically, the metabolic steps involved in chitin biosynthesis are described with an emphasis on how the initiation of chitin biosynthesis remains unknown. A description of the classification, localization and transport of CS was also made. Chitin biosynthesis is shown to underlie a complex regulatory network, with extensive cross-talks existing between the different signaling pathways. Furthermore, pathways and recently identified regulators of chitin biosynthesis during the caspofungin paradoxical effect (CPE) are described. The effect of a chitin on the mammalian immune system is also discussed. Lastly, interference with chitin biosynthesis may also be beneficial for biotechnological applications. Even after more than 30 years of research, chitin biosynthesis remains a topic of current interest in mycology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica S. Brauer
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
| | - André M. Pessoni
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
| | - Mateus S. Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
| | - Marinaldo P. Cavalcanti-Neto
- Integrated Laboratory of Morphofunctional Sciences, Institute of Biodiversity and Sustainability (NUPEM), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 27965-045, Brazil
| | - Laure N. A. Ries
- MRC Centre for Medical Mycology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
- Correspondence: (L.N.A.R.); (F.A.)
| | - Fausto Almeida
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01000-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: (L.N.A.R.); (F.A.)
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Roberts D, Cotter HVT, Cubeta M, Gilger BC. In vitro susceptibility of Aspergillus and Fusarium associated with equine keratitis to new antifungal drugs. Vet Ophthalmol 2020; 23:918-922. [PMID: 32418311 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of four fungal species isolated from horses presented with equine fungal keratitis (EFK) in the southeastern United States to previously untested azole, echinocandin, and carboxamide antifungal drugs. METHODS In vitro assays were performed to determine the susceptibility of Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, Fusarium falciforme, and F. keratoplasticum to five antifungal drugs representing three modes of action. RESULTS Luliconazole exhibited increased growth inhibition against both Aspergillus and Fusarium compared to commonly used, standard antifungal drugs. MIC values for luliconazole at 0.001-0.002 µg/mL were at least 25-fold lower than all other antifungal drugs tested, including voriconazole. CONCLUSIONS The increased antifungal activity of luliconazole observed in this study warrants further investigation for its potential as an antifungal drug for equine fungal keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darby Roberts
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Henry Van T Cotter
- Center for Integrated Fungal Research, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Marc Cubeta
- Center for Integrated Fungal Research, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Brian C Gilger
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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Echinocandins for the Treatment of Invasive Aspergillosis: from Laboratory to Bedside. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.00399-19. [PMID: 31138565 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00399-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Echinocandins (caspofungin, micafungin, anidulafungin), targeting β-1,3-glucan synthesis of the cell wall, represent one of the three currently available antifungal drug classes for the treatment of invasive fungal infections. Despite their limited antifungal activity against Aspergillus spp., echinocandins are considered an alternative option for the treatment of invasive aspergillosis (IA). This drug class exhibits several advantages, such as excellent tolerability and its potential for synergistic interactions with some other antifungals. The objective of this review is to discuss the in vitro and clinical efficacy of echinocandins against Aspergillus spp., considering the complex interactions between the drug, the mold, and the host. The antifungal effect of echinocandins is not limited to direct inhibition of hyphal growth but also induces an immunomodulatory effect on the host's response. Moreover, Aspergillus spp. have developed important adaptive mechanisms of tolerance to survive and overcome the action of echinocandins, such as paradoxical growth at increased concentrations. This stress response can be abolished by several compounds that potentiate the activity of echinocandins, such as drugs targeting the heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90)-calcineurin axis, opening perspectives for adjuvant therapies. Finally, the present and future places of echinocandins as prophylaxis, monotherapy, or combination therapy of IA are discussed in view of the emergence of pan-azole resistance among Aspergillus fumigatus isolates, the occurrence of breakthrough IA, and the advent of new long-lasting echinocandins (rezafungin) or other β-1,3-glucan synthase inhibitors (ibrexafungerp).
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Prasetyoputri A, Jarrad AM, Cooper MA, Blaskovich MA. The Eagle Effect and Antibiotic-Induced Persistence: Two Sides of the Same Coin? Trends Microbiol 2019; 27:339-354. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2018.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Epidemiology of antifungal susceptibility: Review of literature. J Mycol Med 2019; 28:574-584. [PMID: 29773435 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2018.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality despite the latest developments of diagnostic tools and therapeutic options. Early initiation of the appropriate antifungal therapy has been demonstrated to have a direct impact on the patient's outcome. Antifungal susceptibility testing methods are available to detect antifungal resistance and to determine the best treatment for a specific fungus. American and European standards have been developed, as well as equivalent commercial systems, which are more appropriate for clinical laboratories. These studies have allowed the development of interpretative breakpoints against the most frequent agents of fungal infections in the world. Surveillance of antifungal susceptibility patterns can provide the local drug resistance data to the clinicians, which can further aid better management of patients. Antifungal susceptibility tests have become essential tools to identify resistance to antifungals, to know the local and global disease epidemiology and to guide the treatment of fungal diseases. The distribution of species and the prevalence of antifungal resistance in fungi isolates varied among different areas. Here we summarize the epidemiology of antifungal susceptibility pattern of different fungal species.
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Siahmoshteh F, Hamidi-Esfahani Z, Spadaro D, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Razzaghi-Abyaneh M. Unraveling the mode of antifungal action of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens as potential biocontrol agents against aflatoxigenic Aspergillus parasiticus. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Baranyi N, Kocsubé S, Jakšić Despot D, Šegvić Klarić M, Szekeres A, Bencsik O, Kecskeméti A, Manikandan P, Tóth B, Kredics L, Khaled JM, Alharbi NS, Vágvölgyi C, Varga J. Combined genotyping strategy reveals structural differences between Aspergillus flavus lineages from different habitats impacting human health. J Basic Microbiol 2017; 57:899-909. [PMID: 28902962 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201700243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus flavus is a filamentous fungus which is widespread on agricultural products and also able to cause various human diseases. This species is frequently isolated from indoor air as well, furthermore, it is known as a common causal agent of keratomycosis, particularly in subtropical and tropical areas. It is also able to produce aflatoxins, one of the most carcinogenic mycotoxins which are harmful to animals and humans. In this study, 59 A. flavus isolates from four different habitats and 1 A. minisclerotigenes isolate were investigated. The isolates were identified and confirmed at the species level by the sequence analysis of a part of their calmodulin gene. Applying a combined analysis of UP-PCR, microsatellite, and calmodulin sequence data, the four group of isolates formed separate clusters on the phylogenetic tree. Examining the distribution of mating type genes MAT1-1 and MAT1-2, a ratio of approximately 3:1 was determined, and no correlation was found between the carried mating type gene and the aflatoxin production capability. HPLC analysis revealed that none of the examined isolates collected from indoor air or maize in Central Europe were able to produce aflatoxins, while about half of the isolates from India produced these mycotoxins under the test conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolett Baranyi
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Sándor Kocsubé
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Daniela Jakšić Despot
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Microbiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Maja Šegvić Klarić
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Microbiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - András Szekeres
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Ottó Bencsik
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Anita Kecskeméti
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Palanisamy Manikandan
- Greenlink Analytical and Research Laboratory India Private Ltd, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Beáta Tóth
- National Agricultural Research and Innovation Center, NÖKO, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Kredics
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Jamal M Khaled
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Naiyf S Alharbi
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - János Varga
- Faculty of Science and Informatics, Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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Steinbach WJ, Lamoth F, Juvvadi PR. Potential Microbiological Effects of Higher Dosing of Echinocandins. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 61 Suppl 6:S669-77. [PMID: 26567286 DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The antifungal "paradoxical effect" has been described as the reversal of growth inhibition at high doses of echinocandins, most usually caspofungin. This microbiological effect appears to be a cellular compensatory response to cell wall damage, resulting in alteration of cell wall content and structure as well as fungal morphology and growth. In vitro studies demonstrate this reproducible effect in a certain percentage of fungal isolates, but animal model and clinical studies are less consistent. The calcineurin and Hsp90 cell signaling pathways appear to play a major role in regulating these cellular and structural changes. Regardless of the clinical relevance of this paradoxical growth effect, understanding the specific actions of echinocandins is paramount to optimizing their use at either standard or higher dosing schemes, as well as developing future improvements in our antifungal arsenal.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Steinbach
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Frédéric Lamoth
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland
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