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Yang W, Jo SH, Lee TW. Perovskite Colloidal Nanocrystal Solar Cells: Current Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2401788. [PMID: 38708900 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202401788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of polycrystalline perovskite (PVK) solar cells (SCs) (PC-PeSCs) have rapidly increased. However, PC-PeSCs are intrinsically unstable without encapsulation, and their efficiency drops during large-scale production; these problems hinder the commercial viability of PeSCs. Stability can be increased by using colloidal PVK nanocrystals (c-PeNCs), which have high surface strains, low defect density, and exceptional crystal quality. The use of c-PeNCs separates the crystallization process from the film formation process, which is preponderant in large-scale fabrication. Consequently, the use of c-PeNCs has substantial potential to overcome challenges encountered when fabricating PC-PeSCs. Research on colloidal nanocrystal-based PVK SCs (NC-PeSCs) has increased their PCEs to a level greater than those of other quantum-dot SCs, but has not reached the PCEs of PC-PeSCs; this inferiority significantly impedes widespread application of NC-PeSCs. This review first introduces the distinctive properties of c-PeNCs, then the strategies that have been used to achieve high-efficiency NC-PeSCs. Then it discusses in detail the persisting challenges in this domain. Specifically, the major challenges and solutions for NC-PeSCs related to low short-circuit current density Jsc are covered. Last, the article presents a perspective on future research directions and potential applications in the realm of NC-PeSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqiang Yang
- Institute of Atomic Manufacturing, International Research Institute for Multidisciplinary Science, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Hyeon Jo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Woo Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Advanced Materials, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary program in Bioengineering, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Soft Foundry, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
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Zheng H, Liu Q, Wang Y, Hu J, Zou D, Hou S. Understanding and Weakening Photon Recycling in Solar Cells to Approach the Radiative Limit. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2405063. [PMID: 38658048 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202405063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Photon recycling plays an important role in the light outcoupling of state-of-the-art solar cells and is considered a necessary condition to achieve the radiative limit of open-circuit voltage (VOC) and efficiency. However, due to the impact of photon recycling on bulk and surface radiation of solar cells being overlooked, experimental demonstrations on the accuracy of existing photon recycling models are scarce and some contrary theoretical results also emerge. Here, the relationship between photon recycling and radiation processes, as well as the corresponding VOC losses of solar cells based on the principle of detailed balance is clarified. It is shown that weakening photon recycling is more effective to boost the device performance than enhancing it, promoting the theoretical efficiencies of solar cells, such as perovskite, Si, and GaAs, to 98.5%, 94.9%, and almost 100% of their radiative limit, respectively. Moreover, weakening photon recycling also helps to maintain higher efficiency when the internal radiative efficiency decreases, which benefits higher device stability. This work provides an in-depth understanding of the role of photon recycling in solar cells and helps to push efficiency to a new limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haofeng Zheng
- School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Qi Liu
- School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Yanlong Wang
- School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Jing Hu
- School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Dechun Zou
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Shaocong Hou
- School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
- Wuhan University Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China
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Umair M, Hidayat NM, Sukri Ahmad A, Nik Ali NH, Mawardi MIM, Abdullah E. A renewable approach to electric vehicle charging through solar energy storage. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0297376. [PMID: 38422065 PMCID: PMC10903804 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Developing novel EV chargers is crucial for accelerating Electric Vehicle (EV) adoption, mitigating range anxiety, and fostering technological advancements that enhance charging efficiency and grid integration. These advancements address current challenges and contribute to a more sustainable and convenient future of electric mobility. This paper explores the performance dynamics of a solar-integrated charging system. It outlines a simulation study on harnessing solar energy as the primary Direct Current (DC) EV charging source. The approach incorporates an Energy Storage System (ESS) to address solar intermittencies and mitigate photovoltaic (PV) mismatch losses. Executed through MATLAB, the system integrates key components, including solar PV panels, the ESS, a DC charger, and an EV battery. The study finds that a change in solar irradiance from 400 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2 resulted in a substantial 47% increase in the output power of the solar PV system. Simultaneously, the ESS shows a 38% boost in output power under similar conditions, with the assessments conducted at a room temperature of 25°C. The results emphasize that optimal solar panel placement with higher irradiance levels is essential to leverage integrated solar energy EV chargers. The research also illuminates the positive correlation between elevated irradiance levels and the EV battery's State of Charge (SOC). This correlation underscores the efficiency gains achievable through enhanced solar power absorption, facilitating more effective and expedited EV charging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Umair
- School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
- Battery Energy Storage Technology Laboratory (BEST), College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nabil M. Hidayat
- School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
- Battery Energy Storage Technology Laboratory (BEST), College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Sukri Ahmad
- Petronas Research Sdn. Bhd., Bangi Government and Private Training Centre Area, Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nik Hakimi Nik Ali
- School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - M. I. Mohd Mawardi
- Battery Energy Storage Technology Laboratory (BEST), College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ezmin Abdullah
- School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
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Zhao B, Vasilopoulou M, Fakharuddin A, Gao F, Mohd Yusoff ARB, Friend RH, Di D. Light management for perovskite light-emitting diodes. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 18:981-992. [PMID: 37653050 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-023-01482-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Perovskite light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have reached external quantum efficiencies of over 20% for various colours, showing great potential for display and lighting applications. Despite the internal quantum efficiencies of the best-performing devices already approaching unity, around 80% of the internally generated photons are trapped in the devices and lose energy through a variety of lossy channels. Significant opportunities for improving efficiency and maximizing photon extraction lie in the effective management of light. In this Review we analyse light management strategies based on the intrinsic optical properties of the perovskite materials and the extrinsic properties related to device structures. These approaches should allow the external quantum efficiencies of perovskite LEDs to substantially exceed the conventional limits of planar organic LED devices. By revisiting lessons learned from organic LEDs and perovskite solar cells, we highlight possible directions of future research towards perovskite LEDs with ultrahigh efficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baodan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Maria Vasilopoulou
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research 'Demokritos', Attica, Greece
| | | | - Feng Gao
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology (IFM), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Abd Rashid Bin Mohd Yusoff
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Republic of Korea.
| | | | - Dawei Di
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, International Research Center for Advanced Photonics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
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Dyrvik EG, Warby JH, McCarthy MM, Ramadan AJ, Zaininger KA, Lauritzen AE, Mahesh S, Taylor RA, Snaith HJ. Reducing Nonradiative Losses in Perovskite LEDs through Atomic Layer Deposition of Al 2O 3 on the Hole-Injection Contact. ACS NANO 2023; 17:3289-3300. [PMID: 36790329 PMCID: PMC9979650 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c04786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Halide perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) exhibit great potential for use in next-generation display technologies. However, scale-up will be challenging due to the requirement of very thin transport layers for high efficiencies, which often present spatial inhomogeneities from improper wetting and drying during solution processing. Here, we show how a thin Al2O3 layer grown by atomic layer deposition can be used to preferentially cover regions of imperfect hole transport layer deposition and form an intermixed composite with the organic transport layer, allowing hole conduction and injection to persist through the organic hole transporter. This has the dual effect of reducing nonradiative recombination at the heterojunction and improving carrier selectivity, which we infer to be due to the inhibition of direct contact between the indium tin oxide and perovskite layers. We observe an immediate improvement in electroluminescent external quantum efficiency in our p-i-n LEDs from an average of 9.8% to 13.5%, with a champion efficiency of 15.0%. The technique uses industrially available equipment and can readily be scaled up to larger areas and incorporated in other applications such as thin-film photovoltaic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil G. Dyrvik
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Jonathan H. Warby
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Melissa M. McCarthy
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Alexandra J. Ramadan
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Karl-Augustin Zaininger
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Andreas E. Lauritzen
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Suhas Mahesh
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Robert A. Taylor
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
| | - Henry J. Snaith
- Clarendon
Laboratory, Department of Physics, University
of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1
3PU, U.K.
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Cho C, Jang YW, Lee S, Vaynzof Y, Choi M, Noh JH, Leo K. Effects of photon recycling and scattering in high-performance perovskite solar cells. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabj1363. [PMID: 34936442 PMCID: PMC8694589 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj1363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Efficient external radiation is essential for solar cells to achieve high power conversion efficiency (PCE). The classical limit of 1/2n2 (n, refractive index) for electroluminescence quantum efficiency (ELQE) has recently been approached by perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Photon recycling (PR) and light scattering can provide an opportunity to surpass this limit. We investigate the role of PR and scattering in practical device operation using a radiative PSC with an ELQE (13.7% at 1 sun) that significantly surpasses the classical limit (7.4%). We experimentally analyze the contributions of PR and scattering to this strong radiation. A novel optical model reveals an increase of 39 mV in the voltage of our PSC. This analysis can provide design principles for future PSCs to approach the Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changsoon Cho
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials (IAPP), Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Corresponding author. (C.C.); (J.H.N.); (K.L.)
| | - Yeoun-Woo Jang
- Global Frontier Center for Multiscale Energy Systems, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungmin Lee
- School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yana Vaynzof
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials (IAPP), Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mansoo Choi
- Global Frontier Center for Multiscale Energy Systems, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Hong Noh
- School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Graduate School of Energy and Environment (KU-KIST Green School), Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. (C.C.); (J.H.N.); (K.L.)
| | - Karl Leo
- Dresden Integrated Center for Applied Physics and Photonic Materials (IAPP), Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Corresponding author. (C.C.); (J.H.N.); (K.L.)
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7
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Chen J, Ma P, Chen W, Xiao Z. Overcoming Outcoupling Limit in Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes with Enhanced Photon Recycling. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:8426-8432. [PMID: 34525802 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c03035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Photon recycling (PR), reabsorption and reemission of photons, can randomize the propagation direction of photons trapped in the waveguide mode and potentially increase the outcoupling efficiency of perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs). However, the contribution of PR in PeLEDs has not been experimentally quantified in real device structures. Here, we show that, with the PR effect, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of PeLEDs remains above 15% with extraordinary thick perovskite layers up to 2200 nm, which is much higher than the outcoupling efficiency (4.3%) of the thick emissive layer device with an emission zone near the TPBi layer without PR. We designed monolithic device structures to experimentally quantify the PR contribution under device working conditions and reveal that the PR can contribute 2.4%-40.4% of the total emission in PeLEDs depending on film thickness. This work provides an important way of manipulation and quantification of PR contribution in perovskite optoelectronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, Department of Physics, CAS Key Laboratory of Strongly-Coupled Quantum Matter Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Pingchuan Ma
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, Department of Physics, CAS Key Laboratory of Strongly-Coupled Quantum Matter Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Wenjing Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, Department of Physics, CAS Key Laboratory of Strongly-Coupled Quantum Matter Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Zhengguo Xiao
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Science at the Microscale, Department of Physics, CAS Key Laboratory of Strongly-Coupled Quantum Matter Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
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Moseley ODI, Doherty TAS, Parmee R, Anaya M, Stranks SD. Halide perovskites scintillators: unique promise and current limitations. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY. C 2021; 9:11588-11604. [PMID: 34671480 PMCID: PMC8444306 DOI: 10.1039/d1tc01595h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The widespread use of X- and gamma-rays in a range of sectors including healthcare, security and industrial screening is underpinned by the efficient detection of the ionising radiation. Such detector applications are dominated by indirect detectors in which a scintillating material is combined with a photodetector. Halide perovskites have recently emerged as an interesting class of semiconductors, showing enormous promise in optoelectronic applications including solar cells, light-emitting diodes and photodetectors. Here, we discuss how the same superior semiconducting properties that have catalysed their rapid development in these optoelectronic devices, including high photon attenuation and fast and efficient emission properties, also make them promising scintillator materials. By outlining the key mechanisms of their operation as scintillators, we show why reports of remarkable performance have already emerged, and describe how further learning from other optoelectronic devices will propel forward their applications as scintillators. Finally, we outline where these materials can make the greatest impact in detector applications by maximally exploiting their unique properties, leading to dramatic improvements in existing detection systems or introducing entirely new functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver D I Moseley
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue Cambridge CB3 0HE UK
| | - Tiarnan A S Doherty
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue Cambridge CB3 0HE UK
| | - Richard Parmee
- Cheyney Design and Development, Ltd., Litlington Cambridge SG8 0SS UK
| | - Miguel Anaya
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue Cambridge CB3 0HE UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive Cambridge CB3 0AS UK
| | - Samuel D Stranks
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, JJ Thomson Avenue Cambridge CB3 0HE UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Philippa Fawcett Drive Cambridge CB3 0AS UK
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Giovanni D, Righetto M, Zhang Q, Lim JWM, Ramesh S, Sum TC. Origins of the long-range exciton diffusion in perovskite nanocrystal films: photon recycling vs exciton hopping. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2021; 10:2. [PMID: 33386385 PMCID: PMC7775951 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-020-00443-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The outstanding optoelectronic performance of lead halide perovskites lies in their exceptional carrier diffusion properties. As the perovskite material dimensionality is reduced to exploit the quantum confinement effects, the disruption to the perovskite lattice, often with insulating organic ligands, raises new questions on the charge diffusion properties. Herein, we report direct imaging of >1 μm exciton diffusion lengths in CH3NH3PbBr3 perovskite nanocrystal (PNC) films. Surprisingly, the resulting exciton mobilities in these PNC films can reach 10 ± 2 cm2 V-1 s-1, which is counterintuitively several times higher than the carrier mobility in 3D perovskite films. We show that this ultralong exciton diffusion originates from both efficient inter-NC exciton hopping (via Förster energy transfer) and the photon recycling process with a smaller yet significant contribution. Importantly, our study not only sheds new light on the highly debated origins of the excellent exciton diffusion in PNC films but also highlights the potential of PNCs for optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Giovanni
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Marcello Righetto
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Qiannan Zhang
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Jia Wei Melvin Lim
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
- Energy Research Institute @NTU (ERI@N), Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, S2-B3a-01, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Sankaran Ramesh
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
- Energy Research Institute @NTU (ERI@N), Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, S2-B3a-01, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Tze Chien Sum
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore.
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