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Wei X, Moreno-Hagelsieb G, Glick BR, Doxey AC. Comparative analysis of adenylate isopentenyl transferase genes in plant growth-promoting bacteria and plant pathogenic bacteria. Heliyon 2023; 9:e13955. [PMID: 36938451 PMCID: PMC10018469 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokinin is a major phytohormone that has been used in agriculture as a plant-growth stimulating compound since its initial discovery in the 1960s. Isopentenyl transferase (IPT) is a rate-limiting enzyme for cytokinin biosynthesis, which is produced by plants as well as bacteria including both plant pathogenic species and plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). It has been hypothesized that there may be differences in IPT function between plant pathogens and PGPB. However, a comprehensive comparison of IPT genes between plant pathogenic and PGPB species has not been performed. Here, we performed a global comparison of IPT genes across bacteria, analyzing their DNA sequences, codon usage, phyletic distribution, promoter structure and genomic context. We found that adenylate type IPT genes are highly specific to plant-associated bacteria and subdivide into two major clades: clade A, largely composed of proteobacterial plant pathogens; and clade B, largely composed of actinomycete PGPB species. Besides these phylogenetic differences, we identified several genomic features that suggest differences in IPT regulation between pathogens and PGPB. Pathogen-associated IPTs tended to occur in predicted virulence loci, whereas PGPB-associated IPTs tended to co-occur with other genes involved in cytokinin metabolism and degradation. Pathogen-associated IPTs also showed elevated gene copy numbers, significant deviation in codon usage patterns, and extended promoters, suggesting differences in regulation and activity levels. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that differences in IPT regulation and activity exist between plant pathogens and PGPB, which determine their effect on plant host phenotypes through the control of cytokinin levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wei
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | | | - Bernard R. Glick
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Andrew C. Doxey
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
- Corresponding author.
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Terrestrial arthropods broadly possess endogenous phytohormones auxin and cytokinins. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4750. [PMID: 35306514 PMCID: PMC8934337 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08558-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractSome herbivorous insects possess the ability to synthesize phytohormones and are considered to use them for manipulating their host plants, but how these insects acquired the ability remains unclear. We investigated endogenous levels of auxin (IAA) and cytokinins (iP and tZ), including their ribosides (iPR and tZR), in various terrestrial arthropod taxa. Surprisingly, IAA was detected in all arthropods analysed. In contrast, tZ and/or tZR was detected only in some taxa. Endogenous levels of IAA were not significantly different among groups with different feeding habits, but gall inducers possessed significantly higher levels of iPR, tZ and tZR. Ancestral state reconstruction of the ability to synthesize tZ and tZR revealed that the trait has only been acquired in taxa containing gall inducers. Our results strongly suggest critical role of the cytokinin synthetic ability in the evolution of gall-inducing habit and IAA has some function in arthropods.
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Hayashi Y, Ito T, Yoshimura T, Hemmi H. Utilization of an intermediate of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway, (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate, as the prenyl donor substrate for various prenyltransferases. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2017; 82:993-1002. [PMID: 29191109 DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2017.1398064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
(E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (HMBPP) is an intermediate of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway. Utilization of HMBPP by lycopene elongase from Corynebacterium glutamicum, which is a UbiA-family prenyltransferase responsible for C50 carotenoid biosynthesis, was investigated using an Escherichia coli strain that contained the exogenous mevalonate pathway as well as the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. Inhibition of the endogenous methylerythritol phosphate pathway resulted in loss of the production of C50 carotenoid flavuxanthin, while C40 lycopene formation was retained. Overexpression of E. coli ispH gene, which encodes HMBPP reductase, also decreased the production of flavuxanthin in E. coli cells. These results indicate the preference of lycopene elongase for HMBPP instead of the previously proposed substrate, dimethylallyl diphosphate. Furthermore, several (all-E)-prenyl diphosphate synthases, which are classified in a distinct family of prenyltransferase, were demonstrated to accept HMBPP, which implies that the compound is more widely used as a prenyl donor substrate than was previously expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshifumi Hayashi
- a Department of Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences , Nagoya University , Nagoya , Japan
| | - Tomokazu Ito
- a Department of Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences , Nagoya University , Nagoya , Japan
| | - Tohru Yoshimura
- a Department of Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences , Nagoya University , Nagoya , Japan
| | - Hisashi Hemmi
- a Department of Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences , Nagoya University , Nagoya , Japan
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Schäfer M, Meldau S. Real-Time Genetic Manipulations of the Cytokinin Pathway: A Tool for Laboratory and Field Studies. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1569:127-139. [PMID: 28265993 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6831-2_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Although many established tools for cytokinin (CK) pathway manipulations are well suitable for the analysis of molecular interactions, their use on a whole plant scale is often limited by the induction of severe developmental defects. To circumvent this problem, different methods were developed that allow for a more precise manipulation of the CK pathway. Here we present one of these systems, the pOp6/LhGR system for chemically inducible gene expression. This system allows regulation on a spatial, temporal, and quantitative scale and therefore provides a superior tool for analyzing the role of CKs in the interactions of plants with their environment. The pOp6/LhGR system was tested for RNAi-mediated gene silencing and heterologous gene expression and was successfully used for CK pathway manipulations in different model organisms (Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana tabaccum, Nicotiana attenuata, Citrus sinensis × C. trifoliate). Here we describe specific aspects of the screening procedure and present an experimental setup that can not only be used in the laboratory but is also applicable under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schäfer
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str.8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan Meldau
- Research & Development, KWS SAAT SE, Grimsehlstrasse 31, 37574, Einbeck, Germany.
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Hinsch J, Vrabka J, Oeser B, Novák O, Galuszka P, Tudzynski P. De novo biosynthesis of cytokinins in the biotrophic fungus Claviceps purpurea. Environ Microbiol 2015; 17:2935-51. [PMID: 25753486 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Disease symptoms of some phytopathogenic fungi are associated with changes in cytokinin (CK) levels. Here, we show that the CK profile of ergot-infected rye plants is also altered, although no pronounced changes occur in the expression of the host plant's CK biosynthesis genes. Instead, we demonstrate a clearly different mechanism: we report on the first fungal de novo CK biosynthesis genes, prove their functions and constitute a biosynthetic pathway. The ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea produces substantial quantities of CKs in culture and, like plants, expresses enzymes containing the isopentenyltransferase and lonely guy domains necessary for de novo isopentenyladenine production. Uniquely, two of these domains are combined in one bifunctional enzyme, CpIPT-LOG, depicting a novel and potent mechanism for CK production. The fungus also forms trans-zeatin, a reaction catalysed by a CK-specific cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, which is encoded by cpp450 forming a small cluster with cpipt-log. Deletion of cpipt-log and cpp450 did not affect virulence of the fungus, but Δcpp450 mutants exhibit a hyper-sporulating phenotype, implying that CKs are environmental factors influencing fungal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Hinsch
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Josef Vrabka
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Birgitt Oeser
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Galuszka
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Paul Tudzynski
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
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The Importance of Phytohormones and Microbes in Biofertilizers. BACTERIAL METABOLITES IN SUSTAINABLE AGROECOSYSTEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-24654-3_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Erickson JL, Ziegler J, Guevara D, Abel S, Klösgen RB, Mathur J, Rothstein SJ, Schattat MH. Agrobacterium-derived cytokinin influences plastid morphology and starch accumulation in Nicotiana benthamiana during transient assays. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 14:127. [PMID: 24886417 PMCID: PMC4062310 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-14-127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Agrobacterium tumefaciens-based transient assays have become a common tool for answering questions related to protein localization and gene expression in a cellular context. The use of these assays assumes that the transiently transformed cells are observed under relatively authentic physiological conditions and maintain 'normal' sub-cellular behaviour. Although this premise is widely accepted, the question of whether cellular organization and organelle morphology is altered in Agrobacterium-infiltrated cells has not been examined in detail. The first indications of an altered sub-cellular environment came from our observation that a common laboratory strain, GV3101(pMP90), caused a drastic increase in stromule frequency. Stromules, or 'stroma-filled-tubules' emanate from the surface of plastids and are sensitive to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Starting from this observation, the goal of our experiments was to further characterize the changes to the cell resulting from short-term bacterial infestation, and to identify the factor responsible for eliciting these changes. RESULTS Using a protocol typical of transient assays we evaluated the impact of GV3101(pMP90) infiltration on chloroplast behaviour and morphology in Nicotiana benthamiana. Our experiments confirmed that GV3101(pMP90) consistently induces stromules and alters plastid position relative to the nucleus. These effects were found to be the result of strain-dependant secretion of cytokinin and its accumulation in the plant tissue. Bacterial production of the hormone was found to be dependant on the presence of a trans-zeatin synthase gene (tzs) located on the Ti plasmid of GV3101(pMP90). Bacteria-derived cytokinins were also correlated with changes to both soluble sugar level and starch accumulation. CONCLUSION Although we have chosen to focus on how transient Agrobacterium infestation alters plastid based parameters, these changes to the morphology and position of a single organelle, combined with the measured increases in sugar and starch content, suggest global changes to cell physiology. This indicates that cells visualized during transient assays may not be as 'normal' as was previously assumed. Our results suggest that the impact of the bacteria can be minimized by choosing Agrobacterium strains devoid of the tzs gene, but that the alterations to sub-cellular organization and cell carbohydrate status cannot be completely avoided using this strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Erickson
- Abteilung Pflanzen Physiologie, Institut für Biologie-Pflanzenphysiologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 10, Halle/Saale 06120, Germany
| | - Jörg Ziegler
- Abteilung Molekulare Signalverarbeitung, Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Weinberg 3, Halle/Saale 06120, Germany
| | - David Guevara
- Present Address: Pioneer Hi-Bred, 12111 Mississauga Rd, Georgetown, ON L7G 4S7, Canada
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2 W1, Canada
| | - Steffen Abel
- Abteilung Molekulare Signalverarbeitung, Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Weinberg 3, Halle/Saale 06120, Germany
| | - Ralf B Klösgen
- Abteilung Pflanzen Physiologie, Institut für Biologie-Pflanzenphysiologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 10, Halle/Saale 06120, Germany
| | - Jaideep Mathur
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2 W1, Canada
| | - Steven J Rothstein
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2 W1, Canada
| | - Martin H Schattat
- Abteilung Pflanzen Physiologie, Institut für Biologie-Pflanzenphysiologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 10, Halle/Saale 06120, Germany
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2 W1, Canada
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Tarkowski P, Vereecke D. Threats and opportunities of plant pathogenic bacteria. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 32:215-29. [PMID: 24216222 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant pathogenic bacteria can have devastating effects on plant productivity and yield. Nevertheless, because these often soil-dwelling bacteria have evolved to interact with eukaryotes, they generally exhibit a strong adaptivity, a versatile metabolism, and ingenious mechanisms tailored to modify the development of their hosts. Consequently, besides being a threat for agricultural practices, phytopathogens may also represent opportunities for plant production or be useful for specific biotechnological applications. Here, we illustrate this idea by reviewing the pathogenic strategies and the (potential) uses of five very different (hemi)biotrophic plant pathogenic bacteria: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, A. rhizogenes, Rhodococcus fascians, scab-inducing Streptomyces spp., and Pseudomonas syringae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Tarkowski
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | - Danny Vereecke
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, BE-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Schäfer M, Brütting C, Gase K, Reichelt M, Baldwin I, Meldau S. 'Real time' genetic manipulation: a new tool for ecological field studies. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 76:506-18. [PMID: 23906159 PMCID: PMC4190501 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 05/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Field experiments with transgenic plants often reveal the functional significance of genetic traits that are important for the performance of the plants in their natural environments. Until now, only constitutive overexpression, ectopic expression and gene silencing methods have been used to analyze gene-related phenotypes in natural habitats. These methods do not allow sufficient control over gene expression for the study of ecological interactions in real time, of genetic traits that play essential roles in development, or of dose-dependent effects. We applied the sensitive dexamethasone (DEX)-inducible pOp6/LhGR expression system to the ecological model plant Nicotiana attenuata and established a lanolin-based DEX application method to facilitate ectopic gene expression and RNA interference-mediated gene silencing in the field and under challenging conditions (e.g. high temperature, wind and UV radiation). Fully established field-grown plants were used to silence phytoene desaturase and thereby cause photobleaching only in specific plant sectors, and to activate expression of the cytokinin (CK) biosynthesis gene isopentenyl transferase (ipt). We used ipt expression to analyze the role of CKs in both the glasshouse and the field to understand resistance to the native herbivore Tupiocoris notatus, which attacks plants at small spatial scales. By spatially restricting ipt expression and elevating CK levels in single leaves, damage by T. notatus increased, demonstrating the role of CKs in this plant-herbivore interaction at a small scale. As the arena of most ecological interactions is highly constrained in time and space, these tools will advance the genetic analysis of dynamic traits that matter for plant performance in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schäfer
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Molecular Ecology, Hans Knöll Str. 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Christoph Brütting
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Molecular Ecology, Hans Knöll Str. 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Klaus Gase
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Molecular Ecology, Hans Knöll Str. 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Michael Reichelt
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Biochemistry, Hans Knöll Str. 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Ian Baldwin
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Molecular Ecology, Hans Knöll Str. 8, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Stefan Meldau
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department of Molecular Ecology, Hans Knöll Str. 8, Jena 07745, Germany
- German Centre for integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Deutscher Platz 5, Leipzig 04107, Germany
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Černý M, Kuklová A, Hoehenwarter W, Fragner L, Novák O, Rotková G, Jedelský PL, Žáková K, Šmehilová M, Strnad M, Weckwerth W, Brzobohatý B. Proteome and metabolome profiling of cytokinin action in Arabidopsis identifying both distinct and similar responses to cytokinin down- and up-regulation. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2013; 64:4193-206. [PMID: 24064926 PMCID: PMC3808309 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ert227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In plants, numerous developmental processes are controlled by cytokinin (CK) levels and their ratios to levels of other hormones. While molecular mechanisms underlying the regulatory roles of CKs have been intensely researched, proteomic and metabolomic responses to CK deficiency are unknown. Transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings carrying inducible barley cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CaMV35S>GR>HvCKX2) and agrobacterial isopentenyl transferase (CaMV35S>GR>ipt) constructs were profiled to elucidate proteome- and metabolome-wide responses to down- and up-regulation of CK levels, respectively. Proteome profiling identified >1100 proteins, 155 of which responded to HvCKX2 and/or ipt activation, mostly involved in growth, development, and/or hormone and light signalling. The metabolome profiling covered 79 metabolites, 33 of which responded to HvCKX2 and/or ipt activation, mostly amino acids, carbohydrates, and organic acids. Comparison of the data sets obtained from activated CaMV35S>GR>HvCKX2 and CaMV35S>GR>ipt plants revealed unexpectedly extensive overlaps. Integration of the proteomic and metabolomic data sets revealed: (i) novel components of molecular circuits involved in CK action (e.g. ribosomal proteins); (ii) previously unrecognized links to redox regulation and stress hormone signalling networks; and (iii) CK content markers. The striking overlaps in profiles observed in CK-deficient and CK-overproducing seedlings might explain surprising previously reported similarities between plants with down- and up-regulated CK levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Černý
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Institute of Biophysics AS CR and CEITEC–Central European Institute of Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Alena Kuklová
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Institute of Biophysics AS CR and CEITEC–Central European Institute of Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Wolfgang Hoehenwarter
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology (MOSYS), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
- *Present address: Proteome Analysis Research Group, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, D-06120 Halle, Germany
| | - Lena Fragner
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology (MOSYS), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Gabriela Rotková
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Institute of Biophysics AS CR and CEITEC–Central European Institute of Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr L. Jedelský
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, CZ-128 43 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Žáková
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Institute of Biophysics AS CR and CEITEC–Central European Institute of Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Mária Šmehilová
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Wolfram Weckwerth
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology (MOSYS), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Břetislav Brzobohatý
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Institute of Biophysics AS CR and CEITEC–Central European Institute of Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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