Polyamine Metabolism in Ripening Tomato Fruit : II. Polyamine Metabolism and Synthesis in Relation to Enhanced Putrescine Content and Storage Life of a/c Tomato Fruit

Update on the Roles of Polyamines in Fleshy Fruit Ripening, Senescence, and Quality

Ripening of fleshy fruits involves complex physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes that coincide with various changes of the fruit, including texture, color, flavor, and aroma. The processes of ripening are controlled by ethylene in climacteric fruits and abscisic acid (ABA) in non-climacteric fruits. Increasing evidence is also uncovering an essential role for polyamines (PAs) in fruit ripening, especially in climacteric fruits. However, until recently breakthroughs have been made in understanding PA roles in the ripening of non-climacteric fruits. In this review, we compare the mechanisms underlying PA biosynthesis, metabolism, and action during ripening in climacteric and non-climacteric fruits at the physiological and molecular levels. The PA putrescine (Put) has a role opposite to that of spermidine/spermine (Spd/Spm) in cellular metabolism. Arginine decarboxylase (ADC) is crucial to Put biosynthesis in both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (SAMDC) catalyzes the conversion of Put to Spd/Spm, which marks a metabolic transition that is concomitant with the onset of fruit ripening, induced by Spd in climacteric fruits and by Spm in non-climacteric fruits. Once PA catabolism is activated by polyamine oxidase (PAO), fruit ripening and senescence are facilitated by the coordination of mechanisms that involve PAs, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), ABA, ethylene, nitric oxide (NO), and calcium ions (Ca²⁺). Notably, a signal derived from PAO5-mediated PA metabolism has recently been identified in strawberry, a model system for non-climacteric fruits, providing a deeper understanding of the regulatory roles played by PAs in fleshy fruit ripening.

Genetic and metabolic effects of ripening mutations and vine detachment on tomato fruit quality

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit ripening is regulated co-operatively by the action of ethylene and a hierarchy of transcription factors, including RIPENING INHIBITOR (RIN) and NON-RIPENING (NOR). Mutations in these two genes have been adopted commercially to delay ripening, and accompanying textural deterioration, as a means to prolong shelf life. However, these mutations also affect desirable traits associated with colour and nutritional value, although the extent of this trade-off has not been assessed in detail. Here, we evaluated changes in tomato fruit pericarp primary metabolite and carotenoid pigment profiles, as well as the dynamics of specific associated transcripts, in the rin and nor mutants during late development and postharvest storage, as well of those of the partially ripening delayed fruit ripening (dfd) tomato genotype. These profiles were compared with those of the wild-type tomato cultivars Ailsa Craig (AC) and M82. We also evaluated the metabolic composition of M82 fruit ripened on or off the vine over a similar period. In general, the dfd mutation resulted in prolonged firmness and maintenance of quality traits without compromising key metabolites (sucrose, glucose/fructose and glucose) and sectors of intermediary metabolism, including tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. Our analysis also provided insights into the regulation of carotenoid formation and highlighted the importance of the polyamine, putrescine, in extending fruit shelf life. Finally, the metabolic composition analysis of M82 fruit ripened on or off the vine provided insights into the import into fruit of compounds, such as sucrose, during ripening.

Polyamine Catabolism in Plants: A Universal Process With Diverse Functions

Polyamine (PA) catabolic processes are performed by copper-containing amine oxidases (CuAOs) and flavin-containing PA oxidases (PAOs). So far, several CuAOs and PAOs have been identified in many plant species. These enzymes exhibit different subcellular localization, substrate specificity, and functional diversity. Since PAs are involved in numerous physiological processes, considerable efforts have been made to explore the functions of plant CuAOs and PAOs during the recent decades. The stress signal transduction pathways usually lead to increase of the intracellular PA levels, which are apoplastically secreted and oxidized by CuAOs and PAOs, with parallel production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Depending on the levels of the generated H2O2, high or low, respectively, either programmed cell death (PCD) occurs or H2O2 is efficiently scavenged by enzymatic/nonenzymatic antioxidant factors that help plants coping with abiotic stress, recruiting different defense mechanisms, as compared to biotic stress. Amine and PA oxidases act further as PA back-converters in peroxisomes, also generating H2O2, possibly by activating Ca2+ permeable channels. Here, the new research data are discussed on the interconnection of PA catabolism with the derived H2O2, together with their signaling roles in developmental processes, such as fruit ripening, senescence, and biotic/abiotic stress reactions, in an effort to elucidate the mechanisms involved in crop adaptation/survival to adverse environmental conditions and to pathogenic infections.

Modifications in Organic Acid Profiles During Fruit Development and Ripening: Correlation or Causation?

The pivotal role of phytohormones during fruit development and ripening is considered established knowledge in plant biology. Perhaps less well-known is the growing body of evidence suggesting that organic acids play a key function in plant development and, in particular, in fruit development, maturation and ripening. Here, we critically review the connection between organic acids and the development of both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. By analyzing the metabolic content of different fruits during their ontogenetic trajectory, we noticed that the content of organic acids in the early stages of fruit development is directly related to the supply of substrates for respiratory processes. Although different organic acid species can be found during fruit development in general, it appears that citrate and malate play major roles in this process, as they accumulate on a broad range of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. We further highlight the functional significance of changes in organic acid profile in fruits due to either the manipulation of fruit-specific genes or the use of fruit-specific promoters. Despite the complexity behind the fluctuation in organic acid content during fruit development and ripening, we extend our understanding on the importance of organic acids on fruit metabolism and the need to further boost future research. We suggest that engineering organic acid metabolism could improve both qualitative and quantitative traits of crop fruits.

Polyamine Metabolism in Climacteric and Non-Climacteric Fruit Ripening

Polyamines are small aliphatic amines that are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. These growth regulators have been implicated in abiotic and biotic stresses as well as plant development and morphogenesis. Several studies have also suggested a key role of polyamines during fruit set and early development. Polyamines have also been linked to fruit ripening and in the regulation of fruit quality-related traits.Recent studies indicate that during ripening of both climacteric and non-climacteric fruits, a decline in total polyamine contents is observed together with an increased catabolism of these growth regulators.In this review, we explore the current knowledge on polyamine biosynthesis and catabolism during fruit set and ripening. The study of the role of polyamine metabolism in fruit ripening indicates the possible application of these natural polycations to control ripening and postharvest decay as well as to improve fruit quality traits.

S-adenosyl-L-methionine usage during climacteric ripening of tomato in relation to ethylene and polyamine biosynthesis and transmethylation capacity

S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is the major methyl donor in cells and it is also used for the biosynthesis of polyamines and the plant hormone ethylene. During climacteric ripening of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum 'Bonaparte'), ethylene production rises considerably which makes it an ideal object to study SAM involvement. We examined in ripening fruit how a 1-MCP treatment affects SAM usage by the three major SAM-associated pathways. The 1-MCP treatment inhibited autocatalytic ethylene production but did not affect SAM levels. We also observed that 1-(malonylamino)cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid formation during ripening is ethylene dependent. SAM decarboxylase expression was also found to be upregulated by ethylene. Nonetheless polyamine content was higher in 1-MCP-treated fruit. This leads to the conclusion that the ethylene and polyamine pathway can operate simultaneously. We also observed a higher methylation capacity in 1-MCP-treated fruit. During fruit ripening substantial methylation reactions occur which are gradually inhibited by the methylation product S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH). SAH accumulation is caused by a drop in adenosine kinase expression, which is not observed in 1-MCP-treated fruit. We can conclude that tomato fruit possesses the capability to simultaneously consume SAM during ripening to ensure a high rate of ethylene and polyamine production and transmethylation reactions. SAM usage during ripening requires a complex cellular regulation mechanism in order to control SAM levels.

Spermidine affects the transcriptome responses to high temperature stress in ripening tomato fruit

OBJECTIVE

High temperature adversely affects quality and yield of tomato fruit. Polyamine can alleviate heat injury in plants. This study is aimed to investigate the effects of polyamine and high temperature on transcriptional profiles in ripening tomato fruit.

METHODS

An Affymetrix tomato microarray was used to evaluate changes in gene expression in response to exogenous spermidine (Spd, 1 mmol/L) and high temperature (33/27 °C) treatments in tomato fruits at mature green stage.

RESULTS

Of the 10101 tomato probe sets represented on the array, 127 loci were differentially expressed in high temperature-treated fruits, compared with those under normal conditions, functionally characterized by their involvement in signal transduction, defense responses, oxidation reduction, and hormone responses. However, only 34 genes were up-regulated in Spd-treated fruits as compared with non-treated fruits, which were involved in primary metabolism, signal transduction, hormone responses, transcription factors, and stress responses. Meanwhile, 55 genes involved in energy metabolism, cell wall metabolism, and photosynthesis were down-regulated in Spd-treated fruits.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrated that Spd might play an important role in regulation of tomato fruit response to high temperature during ripening stage.

Transcriptome and metabolite profiling show that APETALA2a is a major regulator of tomato fruit ripening

Fruit ripening in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) requires the coordination of both developmental cues as well as the plant hormone ethylene. Although the role of ethylene in mediating climacteric ripening has been established, knowledge regarding the developmental regulators that modulate the involvement of ethylene in tomato fruit ripening is still lacking. Here, we show that the tomato APETALA2a (AP2a) transcription factor regulates fruit ripening via regulation of ethylene biosynthesis and signaling. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated repression of AP2a resulted in alterations in fruit shape, orange ripe fruits, and altered carotenoid accumulation. Microarray expression analyses of the ripe AP2 RNAi fruits showed altered expression of genes involved in various metabolic pathways, such as the phenylpropanoid and carotenoid pathways, as well as in hormone synthesis and perception. Genes involved in chromoplast differentiation and other ripening-associated processes were also differentially expressed, but softening and ethylene biosynthesis occurred in the transgenic plants. Ripening regulators RIPENING-INHIBITOR, NON-RIPENING, and COLORLESS NON-RIPENING (CNR) function upstream of AP2a and positively regulate its expression. In the pericarp of AP2 RNAi fruits, mRNA levels of CNR were elevated, indicating that AP2a and CNR are part of a negative feedback loop in the regulation of ripening. Moreover, we demonstrated that CNR binds to the promoter of AP2a in vitro.

Structure and expression of spermidine synthase genes in apple: two cDNAs are spatially and developmentally regulated through alternative splicing

Three cDNAs (MdSPDS1, 2a and 2b) encoding spermidine synthase (SPDS), a key enzyme in the polyamine biosynthesis, have been cloned from apple [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. var. domestica (Borkh.) Mansf.]. The deduced amino acid sequences of their protein products share 76-83% identity with SPDSs of other higher plants. A comparison of the sequences of the three cDNAs and of the two corresponding genomic DNA fragments (SPDS1 and SPDS2) indicated that MdSPDS1 was transcribed from the SPDS1 sequence, whereas MdSPDS2a and MdSPDS2b were both derived from SPDS2 by alternative splicing. To learn more about the physiological roles of MdSPDS1, MdSPDS2a and MdSPDS2b, Northern analyses were carried out, together with measurements of polyamine content. Levels of both MdSPDS1 and MdSPD2a were higher in young leaves than in mature leaves and shoots. In fruits, mRNA levels were nearly as high as in young leaves and remained high during fruit development. By RT-PCR, MdSPDS2b transcripts were detected in mature leaves and shoots, but not in young leaves and fruits. These results indicate that MdSPDS2a and MdSPDS2b are differentially regulated in a tissue- and developmentally specific manner. The content of free polyamines in mesocarp tissues was measured at five stages of fruit development. At all stages, spermidine (Spd) was the predominant form of polyamine. The level of Spd was high at the early growth stage and declined to about 90% during later developmental stages. The possible regulation of SPDS expression during apple fruit development is discussed.

Poliaminas: Biosíntesis, metabolismo y su papel en la maduración y manipulación postrecolección de frutos / Polyamines: Biosynthesis, metabolism, and their role in ripening and postharvest handling of fruits

Plant polyamines (PAs) are involved in many growth and developmental processes, including several organs such as flowers, leaves and roots. However, behavior of PAs is different in fruits compared with other plant organs. Thus, the concentrations of PAs have been observed to change during development and ripening, though their changing patterns depend on the fruit and the maturity stage. PAs have been related to several types of stress, including, among others, chilling injury, saline stress, modified atmospheres, and mechanical stress. However, whether increased putz-esane concentration is a protective mechanism or whether it is the cause of the stress-induced injury remains unclear. Mechanical stress can be observed in fruits when they are exposed to compression, impact and/or vibration during handling and packaging lines. There is some evidence to support the hypothesis that PAs could also play an important role in this stress; however, there is a lack of information about changes in concentration of endogenous PAs. This paper reviews the role of PAs during some physiological processes affecting fruit ripening and postharvest life. The effects of PAs on the mechanical damages suffered by the fruits during handling, packaging and processing lines are discussed.

Expression of arginine decarboxylase is induced during early fruit development and in young tissues of Pisum sativum (L.)

A cDNA coding for arginine decarboxylase (ADC, EC 4.1.1.19) has been isolated from a cDNA library of parthenocarpic young fruits of Pisum sativum (L.). The deduced aminoacid sequence is 74%, 46% and 35% identical to ADCs from tomato, oat and Escherichia coli, respectively. When the pea ADC cDNA was put under the control of the galactose inducible yeast promoter CYC1-GAL10 and introduced into Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it conferred galactose-regulated expression of the ADC activity. The ADC activity expressed in S. cerevisiae was inhibited 99% by alpha-DL-difluoromethylarginine (DFMA), a specific inhibitor of ADC activity. No activity was detected in the untransformed S. cerevisiae, nor when it was transformed with an antisense ADC construct. This provides direct evidence that the ADC cDNA from pea encoded a functional, specific ADC activity and that S. cerevisiae is able to process correctly the protein. In the pea plant, gene expression of the ADC is high in young developing tissues like shoot tips, young leaflets and flower buds. Fully expanded leaflets and roots have much lower, but still detectable, levels of the ADC transcript. In the ovary and fruit, they are developmentally regulated, showing high levels of expression during the early stages of fruit growth, which in pea is mainly due to cell expansion. The observed changes in the steady-state levels of ADC mRNA alone, however, cannot account for the differences in ADC activity suggesting that other regulatory mechanisms must be acting.

Cloning of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) arginine decarboxylase gene and its expression during fruit ripening

Arginine decarboxylase (ADC) is the first enzyme in one of the two pathways of putrescine biosynthesis in plants. The genes encoding ADC have previously been cloned from oat and Escherichia coli. Degenerate oligonucleotides corresponding to two conserved regions of ADC were used as primers in polymerase chain reaction amplification of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) genomic DNA, and a 1.05-kb fragment was obtained. This genomic DNA fragment encodes an open reading frame of 350 amino acids showing about 50% identity with the oat ADC protein. Using this fragment as a probe, we isolated several partial ADC cDNA clones from a tomato pericarp cDNA library. The 5' end of the coding region was subsequently obtained from a genomic clone containing the entire ADC gene. The tomato ADC gene contains an open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 502 amino acids and a predicted molecular mass of about 55 kD. The predicted amino acid sequence exhibits 47 and 38% identify with oat and E. coli ADCs, respectively. Gel blot hybridization experiments show that, in tomato, ADC is encoded by a single gene and is expressed as a transcript of approximately 2.2 kb in the fruit pericarp and leaf tissues. During fruit ripening the amount of ADC transcript appeared to peak at the breaker stage. No significant differences were seen when steady-state ADC mRNA levels were compared between normal versus long-keeping Alcobaca (alc) fruit, although alc fruit contain elevated putrescine levels and ADC activity at the ripe stage. The lack of correlation between ADC activity and steady-state mRNA levels in alc fruit suggests a translational and/or posttranslational regulation of ADC gene expression during tomato fruit ripening.

Correlation between Ornithine Decarboxylase and Putrescine in Tomato Plants Infected by Citrus Exocortis Viroid or Treated with Ethephon

We have investigated the arginine decarboxylase (ADC, EC 4.1.1.19) and ornithine decarboxylase (ODC, EC 4.1.1.17) activities and the levels of conjugated polyamines to explain the decrease of free putrescine level caused by citrus exocortis viroid (CEVd) and ethephon treatment in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv Rutgers) plants (J.M. Belles, J. Carbonell, V. Conejero [1991] Plant Physiol 96: 1053-1059). This decrease correlates with a decrease in ODC activity in CEVd-infected or ethephon-treated plants; ADC activity was not altered. CEVd infection had no effect on polyamine conjugates, and ethephon produced a decrease in putrescine conjugates. Interference with ethylene action by silver ions prevented the decrease in ODC activity and in free and conjugated putrescine. It is suggested that changes in putrescine level after CEVd infection and ethephon treatment are regulated via ODC activity and that conjugation is not involved.