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Krivopalova A, Mikula P, Cukor J, Ševčík R, Brynychová K, Šálek M. Adaptation of farmland mammalian specialist to urban life: Escape behavior of European hare along the urban-rural gradient. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 951:175779. [PMID: 39191323 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 08/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
The European hare Lepus europaeus is an iconic but rapidly declining farmland specialist with recently confirmed populations in urban areas. However, their behavioral responses and adaptability to urbanization and life in human-dominated areas are fully unexplored. Here, using infrared cameras, we explored escape behavior (measured as the flight initiation distance) using 965 hare observations in urban and farmland areas in the Czech Republic and Austria (Central Europe) and its association with habitat type, distance to the city center, patch size, season, hare age and initial behavior. We found that European hares adjusted their escape behavior to habitat type and escaped significantly earlier in farmland (rural) habitats than in urban habitats. However, escape distances of hares did not differ between farmland types with different degree of habitat heterogeneity. We also revealed that urban hares escaped earlier when located further from the city center or in a larger study patch. Moreover, adult hares escaped earlier than subadults and foraging individuals escaped earlier than resting hares but both only in rural areas. Our results support high behavioral adaptability of European hares to human-dominated urban areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Krivopalova
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic; Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 25202 Jíloviště, Czech Republic
| | - Peter Mikula
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic; TUM School of Life Sciences, Ecoclimatology, Technical University of Munich, Hans-Carl-von-Carlowitz-Platz 2, 85354 Freising, Germany; Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, Lichtenbergstraße 2a, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Jan Cukor
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic; Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 25202 Jíloviště, Czech Republic.
| | - Richard Ševčík
- Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 25202 Jíloviště, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Brynychová
- Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 25202 Jíloviště, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Šálek
- Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Strnady 136, 25202 Jíloviště, Czech Republic; Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic; Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Květná 8, 60365 Brno, Czech Republic
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2
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Karkarey R, Boström Einarsson L, Graham NAJ, Mukrikkakudi I, Bilutheth MN, Chekkillam AR, KK IB, Keith SA. Do risk-prone behaviours compromise reproduction and increase vulnerability of fish aggregations exposed to fishing? Biol Lett 2024; 20:20240292. [PMID: 39106945 PMCID: PMC11303021 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2024.0292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Human disturbances can prompt natural anti-predator behaviours in animals, affecting how energy is traded off between immediate survival and reproduction. In our study of male squaretail groupers (Plectropomus areolatus) in India's Lakshadweep archipelago, we investigated the impact of fishing pressure on anti-predatory responses and reproductive behaviours by comparing a fished and unfished spawning aggregation site and tracking responses over time at the fished site. Using observational sampling and predator exposure experiments, we analysed fear responses (flight initiation distance, return time), as well as time spent in vigilance, courtship and territorial defence. Unpaired males at fished sites were twice as likely to flee from simulated predators and took longer to return to mating territories. In contrast, paired males at both sites took greater risks during courtship, fleeing later than unpaired males, but returned earlier at the unfished site compared with the fished site. Our findings suggest that high fishing pressure reduces reproductive opportunities by increasing vigilance and compromising territorial defence, potentially affecting mate selection cues. Altered behavioural trade-offs may mitigate short-term capture risk but endanger long-term population survival through altered reproductive investment. Human extractive practices targeting animal reproductive aggregations can have disruptive effects beyond direct removal, influencing animal behaviours crucial for population survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rucha Karkarey
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, LancasterLA1 4YQ, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Idrees Babu KK
- Department of Science and Technology, Kavaratti, Lakshadweep, India
| | - Sally A. Keith
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, LancasterLA1 4YQ, UK
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3
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Golawska S, Charalambidou I, Surmacki A, Golawski A. Tourism influences escape behavior of lizards in relationship with human clothing color. Sci Rep 2024; 14:16869. [PMID: 39043804 PMCID: PMC11266688 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-68092-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Increased tourism pressure modifies animal behavior, including alterations in anti-predator responses and foraging activity. In areas with high tourist presence, animals may become accustomed to increased human activity and adjust the intensity of some defensive responses. An animal's anti-predation ability is usually estimated by measuring its Alert Initiation Distance (AID) and Flight Initiation Distance (FID). Both indexes are affected by multiple factors including the color of the observer's clothing. Animal behavior is also influenced by human presence, and individuals may become accustomed to increased human presence, e.g. in tourist areas. In this study, we analysed the escape behavior of the endemic Cyprus rock agama (Laudakia cypriaca) in relation to the observers clothing color. Our results showed that AIDs and FIDs of agamas in tourist areas were significantly shorter than those in non-tourist areas. Moreover, in non-tourist areas, AIDs and FIDs of agamas were significantly longer when the observer wore red clothes, compared to green and grey clothes. Our results may be helpful in planning research taking into account various colored clothing based on expected reptilian reactions. Furthermore, our results may determine the proximity at which humans interact with animals, considering clothing color, to prevent negative impacts especially on rare and protected lizard species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Golawska
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Siedlce, Prusa 14, 08-110, Siedlce, Poland
| | - Iris Charalambidou
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Adrian Surmacki
- Department of Avian Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
| | - Artur Golawski
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Siedlce, Prusa 14, 08-110, Siedlce, Poland.
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4
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Mikula P, Bulla M, Blumstein DT, Benedetti Y, Floigl K, Jokimäki J, Kaisanlahti-Jokimäki ML, Markó G, Morelli F, Møller AP, Siretckaia A, Szakony S, Weston MA, Zeid FA, Tryjanowski P, Albrecht T. Urban birds' tolerance towards humans was largely unaffected by COVID-19 shutdown-induced variation in human presence. Commun Biol 2024; 7:874. [PMID: 39020006 PMCID: PMC11255252 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06387-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and respective shutdowns dramatically altered human activities, potentially changing human pressures on urban-dwelling animals. Here, we use such COVID-19-induced variation in human presence to evaluate, across multiple temporal scales, how urban birds from five countries changed their tolerance towards humans, measured as escape distance. We collected 6369 escape responses for 147 species and found that human numbers in parks at a given hour, day, week or year (before and during shutdowns) had a little effect on birds' escape distances. All effects centered around zero, except for the actual human numbers during escape trial (hourly scale) that correlated negatively, albeit weakly, with escape distance. The results were similar across countries and most species. Our results highlight the resilience of birds to changes in human numbers on multiple temporal scales, the complexities of linking animal fear responses to human behavior, and the challenge of quantifying both simultaneously in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Mikula
- TUM School of Life Sciences, Ecoclimatology, Technical University of Munich, 85354, Freising, Germany.
- Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, 85748, Garching, Germany.
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia.
| | - Martin Bulla
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia.
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 621 Young Drive, South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Yanina Benedetti
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia
| | - Kristina Floigl
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jukka Jokimäki
- Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, PO Box 122, 96101, Rovaniemi, Finland
| | | | - Gábor Markó
- Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Plant Protection, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Ménesi út 44, 1118, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Federico Morelli
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona Góra, Prof. Z. Szafrana St. 1, 65516, Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Anders Pape Møller
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405, Orsay Cedex, Paris, France
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Sciences and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, 100875, Beijing, China
| | - Anastasiia Siretckaia
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia
| | - Sára Szakony
- Department of Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, Rottenbiller u. 50., 1077, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Michael A Weston
- Deakin Marine, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood Campus, 221 Burwood Highway, VIC 3125, Burwood, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Farah Abou Zeid
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 16500, Prague, Czechia
| | - Piotr Tryjanowski
- TUM School of Life Sciences, Ecoclimatology, Technical University of Munich, 85354, Freising, Germany
- Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, 85748, Garching, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71C, 60625, Poznań, Poland
| | - Tomáš Albrecht
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 60365, Brno, Czech Republic.
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 12844, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Golawski A, Charalambidou I, Golawska S. Impact of tourism on the vigilance behavior of the Cyprus rock agama (Laudakia cypriaca). Integr Zool 2024; 19:577-583. [PMID: 37515506 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Escape behavior is a common antipredator strategy among wild animals. Here, we investigated the effect of four factors on the vigilance behavior of the endemic Cyprus rock agama (Laudakia cypriaca). Flight initiation distance (FID, the minimum distance to which an observer can approach a lizard before it flees) was measured in relation to the type of location (tourist vs. nontourist area), the observer's starting distance, air temperature, and substrate temperature. We collected data for 39 agamas in tourist areas and 34 of these lizards in nontourist areas. As a whole, the mean starting distance was 10.5 m and the FID was 3.6 m. The average substrate temperature was 34.0°C and the average air temperature 29.6°C. Only the type of area affected the agamas' escape decisions with FID being 1.8 m shorter in tourist areas than in nontourist areas (2.7 m vs. 4.5 m). This is probably due to the habituation of lizards to the presence of humans in the former areas. This study shows that tourism strongly affects the behavior of lizards, which may have consequences for the functioning of the population. Tourists can increase the safety of lizards by creating a human shield to deter predators. Once the tourist season is over, lizards may become more vulnerable to predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Golawski
- Faculty of Sciences, Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Siedlce, Poland
| | - Iris Charalambidou
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Sylwia Golawska
- Faculty of Sciences, Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Siedlce, Poland
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6
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Overs E, Stump S, Severino I, Blumstein DT. A test of the species confidence hypothesis in dusky damselfish. Curr Zool 2024; 70:79-86. [PMID: 38476140 PMCID: PMC10926255 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Visual cues are important in both interspecific and intraspecific communication. The species confidence hypothesis proposes that animals are more attracted to conspecific colors and repelled by colors, not on their bodies. Studies on terrestrial lizards and birds have tested the species confidence hypothesis and shown that conspecific colors elicit reduced antipredator behavior. To date, the species confidence hypothesis has not been tested in the marine environment, specifically on coral reefs where color communication is of vital importance. We addressed this knowledge gap by measuring flight initiation distance (the distance an individual moves away from an approaching threat) in dusky damselfish (Stegastes nigricans) in response to an approaching disc of 1 of 4 different color treatments: conspecific, blue, yellow, and black. If the species confidence hypothesis explained variation in damselfish flight initiation distance, then we expected individuals to tolerate closer approaches when approached by a conspecific color. In addition, we calculated the color difference between each stimulus and its corresponding background as a potential alternative explanation for flight responses. Damselfish tolerated the closest approach from the conspecific color stimulus; there were no significant differences between other colors and there was no support for the alternative color difference hypothesis. As with similar terrestrial studies, these results are relevant to ecotourists' choice of swimsuit and wetsuit colors because color choice may modify natural antipredator behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elle Overs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
| | - Sydney Stump
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
| | - Isabel Severino
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
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7
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Asunsolo-Rivera A, Lester E, Langlois T, Vaughan B, McCormick MI, Simpson SD, Meekan MG. Behaviour of mesopredatory coral reef fishes in response to threats from sharks and humans. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6714. [PMID: 37185796 PMCID: PMC10130163 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33415-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Both sharks and humans present a potentially lethal threat to mesopredatory fishes in coral reef systems, with implications for both population dynamics and the role of mesopredatory fishes in reef ecosystems. This study quantifies the antipredator behaviours mesopredatory fishes exhibit towards the presence of large coral reef carnivores and compares these behavioural responses to those elicited by the presence of snorkelers. Here, we used snorkelers and animated life-size models of the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) to simulate potential predatory threats to mesopredatory reef fishes (lethrinids, lutjanids, haemulids and serranids). The responses of these reef fishes to the models and the snorkelers were compared to those generated by three non-threatening controls (life-size models of a green turtle [Chelonia mydas], a PVC-pipe [an object control] and a Perspex shape [a second object control]). A Remote Underwater Stereo-Video System (Stereo-RUV) recorded the approach of the different treatments and controls and allowed accurate measurement of Flight Initiation Distance (FID) and categorization of the type of flight response by fishes. We found that mesopredatory reef fishes had greater FIDs in response to the approach of threatening models (1402 ± 402-1533 ± 171 mm; mean ± SE) compared to the controls (706 ± 151-896 ± 8963 mm). There was no significant difference in FID of mesopredatory fishes between the shark model and the snorkeler, suggesting that these treatments provoked similar levels of predator avoidance behaviour. This has implications for researchers monitoring behaviour in situ or using underwater census as a technique to estimate the abundance of reef fishes. Our study suggests that, irrespective of the degree to which sharks actually consume these mesopredatory reef fishes, they still elicit a predictable and consistent antipredator response that has the potential to create risk effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Asunsolo-Rivera
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.
| | - E Lester
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - T Langlois
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - B Vaughan
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - M I McCormick
- Coastal Marine Field Station, School of Science, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand
| | - S D Simpson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - M G Meekan
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, The University of Western Australia Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
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8
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Mikula P, Tomášek O, Romportl D, Aikins TK, Avendaño JE, Braimoh-Azaki BDA, Chaskda A, Cresswell W, Cunningham SJ, Dale S, Favoretto GR, Floyd KS, Glover H, Grim T, Henry DAW, Holmern T, Hromada M, Iwajomo SB, Lilleyman A, Magige FJ, Martin RO, de A Maximiano MF, Nana ED, Ncube E, Ndaimani H, Nelson E, van Niekerk JH, Pienaar C, Piratelli AJ, Pistorius P, Radkovic A, Reynolds C, Røskaft E, Shanungu GK, Siqueira PR, Tarakini T, Tejeiro-Mahecha N, Thompson ML, Wamiti W, Wilson M, Tye DRC, Tye ND, Vehtari A, Tryjanowski P, Weston MA, Blumstein DT, Albrecht T. Bird tolerance to humans in open tropical ecosystems. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2146. [PMID: 37081049 PMCID: PMC10119130 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37936-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal tolerance towards humans can be a key factor facilitating wildlife-human coexistence, yet traits predicting its direction and magnitude across tropical animals are poorly known. Using 10,249 observations for 842 bird species inhabiting open tropical ecosystems in Africa, South America, and Australia, we find that avian tolerance towards humans was lower (i.e., escape distance was longer) in rural rather than urban populations and in populations exposed to lower human disturbance (measured as human footprint index). In addition, larger species and species with larger clutches and enhanced flight ability are less tolerant to human approaches and escape distances increase when birds were approached during the wet season compared to the dry season and from longer starting distances. Identification of key factors affecting animal tolerance towards humans across large spatial and taxonomic scales may help us to better understand and predict the patterns of species distributions in the Anthropocene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Mikula
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65, Brno, Czech Republic.
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 44, Praha 2, Czech Republic.
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 621 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1606, USA.
| | - Oldřich Tomášek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Dušan Romportl
- Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Timothy K Aikins
- Department of Biodiversity Conservation and Management, University for Development Studies, P.O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Jorge E Avendaño
- Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva de Vertebrados, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
- Programa de Biología, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Bukola D A Braimoh-Azaki
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- AP Leventis Ornithological Research Institute, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria
| | - Adams Chaskda
- AP Leventis Ornithological Research Institute, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria
| | - Will Cresswell
- Centre for Biological Diversity, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9TH, UK
| | - Susan J Cunningham
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Svein Dale
- Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, Norwegian, 1432 Ås, Norway
| | | | - Kelvin S Floyd
- International Crane Foundation/Endangered Wildlife Trust (ICF/EWT Partnership), P. O Box 33944, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Hayley Glover
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Hwy, Burwood, VIC, 3125, Australia
| | - Tomáš Grim
- Department of Biology and Ecology, University of Ostrava, Chittussiho 10, 710 00, Ostrava, Czech Republic
| | - Dominic A W Henry
- Centre for Statistics in Ecology, Environment and Conservation, Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7700, South Africa
| | - Tomas Holmern
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, NO-7091, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Martin Hromada
- Laboratory and Museum of Evolutionary Ecology, Department of Ecology, Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, University of Prešov, 17. novembra 1, 081 16, Prešov, Slovakia
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona Góra, Prof. Z. Szafrana 1, 65-516, Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Soladoye B Iwajomo
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba, Nigeria
- TETFUND Centre of Excellence in Biodiversity Conservation and Ecosystem Management, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - Amanda Lilleyman
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, 0909, Australia
| | - Flora J Magige
- Department of Zoology and Wildlife Conservation, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Rowan O Martin
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
- Africa Conservation Programme, World Parrot Trust, Glanmor House, Hayle, TR27 4HB, UK
| | - Marina F de A Maximiano
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia. Avenida André Araújo, 69067-375, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Eric D Nana
- Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), 1st Main road Nkolbisson - Yaoundé, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Emmanuel Ncube
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, P Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | - Henry Ndaimani
- International Fund for Animal Welfare, 22 Airdrie Road, Estlea, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Emma Nelson
- School of Medicine, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Ashton Street, L69 3GS, Liverpool, UK
| | - Johann H van Niekerk
- Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, PO Box 392, Pretoria, 0003, South Africa
| | - Carina Pienaar
- BirdLife South Africa, Isdell House, 17 Hume Road, Dunkeld West, 2196, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Augusto J Piratelli
- Departamento de Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos km 110, 18086-330, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Penny Pistorius
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Anna Radkovic
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Hwy, Burwood, VIC, 3125, Australia
| | - Chevonne Reynolds
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Eivin Røskaft
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, NO-7091, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Griffin K Shanungu
- International Crane Foundation/Endangered Wildlife Trust (ICF/EWT Partnership), P. O Box 33944, Lusaka, Zambia
- Department of Biology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Paulo R Siqueira
- Department of Genetics, Ecology and Evolution, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Presidente Antônio Carlos avenue 6627, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Tawanda Tarakini
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, P Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
- Research and Education for Sustainable Actions, 9934 Katanda, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | - Nattaly Tejeiro-Mahecha
- Grupo de investigación ECOTONOS, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas e Ingeniería, Universidad de Los Llanos, Villavicencio, Colombia
- Colecciones Biológicas, Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Villa de Leyva, Boyacá, Colombia
| | - Michelle L Thompson
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Wanyoike Wamiti
- Zoology Department, National Museums of Kenya, Museum Hill Rd., P.O. BOX 40658- 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mark Wilson
- British Trust for Ornithology, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Donovan R C Tye
- Organisation for Tropical Studies, PO Box 33, Skukuza, 1350, South Africa
| | | | - Aki Vehtari
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, PO Box 15400, 00076, Aalto, Finland
| | - Piotr Tryjanowski
- Department of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71c, 60-625, Poznań, Poland
- TUM School of Life Sciences, Ecoclimatology, Technical University of Munich, 85354, Freising, Germany
- Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Michael A Weston
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Hwy, Burwood, VIC, 3125, Australia
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 621 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1606, USA
| | - Tomáš Albrecht
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 44, Praha 2, Czech Republic
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9
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Fear generalization and behavioral responses to multiple dangers. Trends Ecol Evol 2023; 38:369-380. [PMID: 36428124 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Animals often exhibit consistent-individual differences (CIDs) in boldness/fearfulness, typically studied in the context of predation risk. We focus here on fear generalization, where fear of one danger (e.g., predators) is correlated with fear of other dangers (e.g., humans, pathogens, moving vehicles, or fire). We discuss why fear generalization should be ecologically important, and why we expect fear to correlate across disparate dangers. CIDs in fear are well studied for some dangers in some taxa (e.g., human fear of pathogens), but not well studied for most dangers. Fear of some dangers has been found to correlate with general fearfulness, but some cases where we might expect correlated fears (e.g., between fear of humans, familiar predators, and exotic predators) are surprisingly understudied.
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10
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I love to hate my neighbour: how recognition of dear enemies affects male antipredator behaviours in a lizard species. Anim Behav 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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11
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Zhao Y, Jin X, Zhao T, Li J. Escape from self: Stress increase consumers' preference for experiences over material possessions. Front Public Health 2023; 10:1070947. [PMID: 36684878 PMCID: PMC9851043 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1070947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Considering the theory of self-escape, this research systematically investigates the effect of stress on consumers' preference for experiences vs. material possessions. Methods We conducted one survey and two experiments to demonstrate the effect of stress on individuals' relative preference for experiential vs. material consumption and its psychological mechanism. Results The findings of the three studies revealed that stress increases consumers' preference for experiences over material possessions. Additionally, self-escape motivation plays a mediating role between stress and preference for experiential consumption (vs. material consumption). Stress as a self-threat triggers individuals' motivation to escape from negative self-concept, and experiences can help individuals temporarily escape from negative self-recognition and provide more leisure value than material possessions. Therefore, individuals increase their consumption preference for experiences. Furthermore, we observed that the type of experiences plays a moderating role between stress and preference for experiential consumption (vs. material consumption). Specifically, compared with low cognitive resource demanding experiences, the effect of stress on experiential consumption disappears when experiences have a high demand for cognitive resources. Discussion These findings extend the research on stress, experiential consumption and material consumption and provide significant advice for public mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurou Zhao
- School of Business and Management, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaotong Jin
- School of Business and Management, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Taiyang Zhao
- School of Philosophy and Sociology, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jianan Li
- School of Business and Management, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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12
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When to Return to Normal? Temporal Dynamics of Vigilance in Four Situations. BIRDS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/birds4010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Vigilance is an important behaviour to monitor the environment from detecting predators to tracking conspecifics. However, little is known about how vigilance changes over time either without disturbance (vigilance decrement) or after a change occurred. The time course of vigilance can indicate how animals perceive a situation and the potential mechanism used to deal with it. I investigated the time course of vigilance in Gouldian Finches in four situations (familiar environment, two changed environments–novel object at a neutral location (exploration trial) or above the feeder (neophobia trial), novel environment). The frequency of head movements was assessed in four consecutive 15-min blocks in same sex pairs with a high frequency generally seen as indicative of high vigilance. Vigilance decreased over time in the familiar situation indicating vigilance decrement with a similar time course in the exploration trial. Vigilance was consistently high in the neophobia trial and only returned to normal in the last block. Finally, vigilance plummeted in the novel environment and did not return to normal within an hour. Results suggest that perceived threats affected vigilance and that information gathering reduced uncertainty allowing vigilance to return to normal levels but with different time courses depending on the situation.
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13
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De Meester G, Van Linden L, Torfs J, Pafilis P, Šunje E, Steenssens D, Zulčić T, Sassalos A, Van Damme R. Learning with lacertids: Studying the link between ecology and cognition within a comparative framework. Evolution 2022; 76:2531-2552. [PMID: 36111365 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Cognition is an essential tool for animals to deal with environmental challenges. Nonetheless, the ecological forces driving the evolution of cognition throughout the animal kingdom remain enigmatic. Large-scale comparative studies on multiple species and cognitive traits have been advanced as the best way to facilitate our understanding of cognitive evolution, but such studies are rare. Here, we tested 13 species of lacertid lizards (Reptilia: Lacertidae) using a battery of cognitive tests measuring inhibitory control, problem-solving, and spatial and reversal learning. Next, we tested the relationship between species' performance and (a) resource availability (temperature and precipitation), habitat complexity (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index), and habitat variability (seasonality) in their natural habitat and (b) their life history (size at hatching and maturity, clutch size, and frequency). Although species differed markedly in their cognitive abilities, such variation was mostly unrelated to their ecology and life history. Yet, species living in more variable environments exhibited lower behavioral flexibility, likely due to energetic constrains in such habitats. Our standardized protocols provide opportunities for collaborative research, allowing increased sample sizes and replication, essential for moving forward in the field of comparative cognition. Follow-up studies could include more detailed measures of habitat structure and look at other potential selective drivers such as predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles De Meester
- Functional Morphology Lab, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 2610, Belgium.,Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, Department of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, 157 84, Greece
| | - Lisa Van Linden
- Functional Morphology Lab, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 2610, Belgium
| | - Jonas Torfs
- Functional Morphology Lab, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 2610, Belgium
| | - Panayiotis Pafilis
- Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, Department of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, 157 84, Greece
| | - Emina Šunje
- Functional Morphology Lab, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 2610, Belgium.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina.,Herpetological Association in Bosnia and Herzegovina: BHHU: ATRA, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Dries Steenssens
- Functional Morphology Lab, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 2610, Belgium
| | - Tea Zulčić
- Herpetological Association in Bosnia and Herzegovina: BHHU: ATRA, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Athanasios Sassalos
- Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, Department of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, 157 84, Greece
| | - Raoul Van Damme
- Functional Morphology Lab, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, 2610, Belgium
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14
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Smolinský R, Hiadlovská Z, Maršala Š, Škrabánek P, Škrobánek M, Martínková N. High predation risk decimates survival during the reproduction season. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9407. [PMID: 36262266 PMCID: PMC9576000 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Predators attack conspicuous prey phenotypes that are present in the environment. Male display behavior of conspicuous nuptial coloration becomes risky in the presence of a predator, and adult males face higher predation risk. High predation risk in one sex will lead to low survival and sex ratio bias in adult cohorts, unless the increased predation risk is compensated by higher escape rate.Here, we tested the hypothesis that sand lizards (Lacerta agilis) have sex-specific predation risk and escape rate. We expected the differences to manifest in changes in sex ratio with age, differences in frequency of tail autotomy, and in sex-specific survival rate.We developed a statistical model to estimate predation risk and escape rate, combining the observed sex ratio and frequency of tail autotomy with likelihood-based survival rate. Using Bayesian framework, we estimated the model parameters. We projected the date of the tail autotomy events from growth rates derived from capture-recapture data measurements.We found statistically stable sex ratio in age groups, equal frequency of tail regenerates between sexes, and similar survival rate. Predation risk is similar between sexes, and escape rate increases survival by about 5%. We found low survival rate and a low number of tail autotomy events in females during months when sand lizards mate and lay eggs, indicating high predator pressure throughout reproduction. Our data show that gravid females fail to escape predation.The risks of reproduction season in an ectotherm are a convolution of morphological changes (conspicuous coloration in males and body allometry changes in gravid females), behavior (nuptial displays), and environmental conditions which challenge lizard thermal performance. Performance of endotherm predators in cold spring months endangers gravid females more than displaying males in bright nuptial coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radovan Smolinský
- Department of Biology, Faculty of EducationMasaryk UniversityBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Zuzana Hiadlovská
- Institute of Animal Physiology and GeneticsCzech Academy of SciencesBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Štěpán Maršala
- Institute of Automation and Computer ScienceBrno University of TechnologyBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Pavel Škrabánek
- Institute of Automation and Computer ScienceBrno University of TechnologyBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Michal Škrobánek
- Department of Biology, Faculty of EducationMasaryk UniversityBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Natália Martínková
- Institute of Vertebrate BiologyCzech Academy of SciencesBrnoCzech Republic
- RECETOX, Faculty of ScienceMasaryk UniversityBrnoCzech Republic
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15
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Miranda RB, Klaczko J, Tonini JF, Brandão RA. Escaping from predators: a review of Neotropical lizards defence traits. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2022.2082538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rogério B. Miranda
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - Julia Klaczko
- Laboratório de Anatomia Comparada de Vertebrados, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - João F.R. Tonini
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA), USA
| | - Reuber Albuquerque Brandão
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
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16
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Wrensford K, Gutierrez J, Cooper WE, Blumstein DT. Empirical studies of escape behavior find mixed support for the race for life model. Curr Zool 2022; 68:305-313. [PMID: 35592352 PMCID: PMC9113366 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Escape theory has been exceptionally successful in conceptualizing and accurately predicting effects of numerous factors that affect predation risk and explaining variation in flight initiation distance (FID; predator-prey distance when escape begins). Less explored is the relative orientation of an approaching predator, prey, and its eventual refuge. The relationship between an approaching threat and its refuge can be expressed as an angle we call the "interpath angle" or "Φ," which describes the angle between the paths of predator and prey to the prey's refuge and thus expresses the degree to which prey must run toward an approaching predator. In general, we might expect that prey would escape at greater distances if they must flee toward a predator to reach its burrow. The "race for life" model makes formal predictions about how Φ should affect FID. We evaluated the model by studying escape decisions in yellow-bellied marmots Marmota flaviventer, a species which flees to burrows. We found support for some of the model's predictions, yet the relationship between Φ and FID was less clear. Marmots may not assess Φ in a continuous fashion; but we found that binning angle into 4 45° bins explained a similar amount of variation as models that analyzed angle continuously. Future studies of Φ, especially those that focus on how different species perceive relative orientation, will likely enhance our understanding of its importance in flight decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwasi Wrensford
- Department of Integrative Biology, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Crested Butte, CO 81224, USA
| | | | - William E Cooper
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Crested Butte, CO 81224, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 6121 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
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17
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Kojima W. Fearless distasteful butterflies and timid mimetic butterflies: comparison of flight initiation distances in Papilioninae. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20220145. [PMID: 35538843 PMCID: PMC9091839 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prey are expected to flee from an approaching predator when the cost of remaining (i.e. being captured) exceeds the cost of fleeing. In species where individuals experience less predation pressure, delayed escape responses to predatory threats are predicted. Therefore, non-chalant behaviour should be observed in unpalatable and Batesian mimetic prey while rapid escape behaviour may be displayed in palatable and non-mimetic prey from closely related species. This study compared the flight initiation distances (FIDs; the distances at which a prey starts to flee during a standardized human approach) of several sympatric swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae) in two areas with different temperate zones. As predicted, it was found that unpalatable species had significantly shorter FIDs than palatable species in both areas. By contrast, FIDs of Batesian mimic species were significantly longer than those of unpalatable model species and were not significantly different from those of palatable species. FIDs were not significantly different between mimetic and non-mimetic forms of the intraspecific polymorphic species Papilio polytes. The mimetic species or form may reduce the risk of revealing their identity (i.e. palatability) through early escape behaviour. These findings have implications for the selective forces that affect the escape tendency of prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wataru Kojima
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi 7538511, Japan
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18
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Diel variation in anti-predation behavior of a ground squirrel and relationships between vigilance and escape. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03174-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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19
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Cyriac VP, Srinivasa KB, Kumar L, Martin G. Should I stay or should I go: escape behaviour of Russell’s vipers, Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) in India’s agricultural landscapes. ANIM BIOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1163/15707563-bja10072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Predation exerts a strong selective force on prey, and hence prey species have evolved a multitude of ways to escape predation. One strategy by which many mobile species escape predation is by fleeing when approached by predators. However, fleeing too early can have fitness costs. Thus, optimal escape theory suggests that escape behaviour in prey depends on the risk of being eaten and the fleeing costs. Several studies on mammals, birds and lizards lend support to this hypothesis. However, few studies have explored escape behaviour in snakes. Here, using radio telemetry to track snakes in the field, we study the escape behaviour in Russell’s vipers, a highly venomous and cryptic snake, responsible for the highest number of snakebite deaths in India. We show that escape response, i.e., the decision to stay or flee, was influenced by intrinsic factors such as the snake’s behaviour and body temperature. We also show that the flight initiation distance, the distance at which the snake flees, was mostly determined by habitat selection, i.e., the visibility of the snake and the distance to the nearest cover. Overall, we show that different factors could determine the decision to flee and when to flee. We also highlight how understanding escape response in such highly venomous, medically important yet secretive snakes could potentially help reduce human-snake encounters and mitigate the snakebite crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek P. Cyriac
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, CV Raman Rd, Bengaluru, Karnataka – 560012, India
- The Liana Trust, Sy. No. 1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
| | - Kiran B. Srinivasa
- Humane Society International (India), Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
| | - Lohith Kumar
- The Liana Trust, Sy. No. 1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
| | - Gerard Martin
- The Liana Trust, Sy. No. 1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
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20
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Coni EOC, Booth DJ, Nagelkerken I. Coral-reef fishes can become more risk-averse at their poleward range limits. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20212676. [PMID: 35317673 PMCID: PMC8941391 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
As climate warms, tropical species are expanding their distribution to temperate ecosystems where they are confronted with novel predators and habitats. Predation strongly regulates ecological communities, and range-extending species that adopt an effective antipredator strategy have a higher likelihood to persist in non-native environments. Here, we test this hypothesis by comparing various proxies of antipredator and other fitness-related behaviours between range-extending tropical fishes and native-temperate fishes at multiple sites across a 730 km latitudinal range. Although some behavioural proxies of risk aversion remained unaltered for individual tropical fish species, in general they became more risk-averse (increased sheltering and/or flight initiation distance), and their activity level decreased poleward. Nevertheless, they did not experience a decline in body condition or feeding rate in their temperate ranges. Temperate fishes did not show a consistently altered pattern in their behaviours across range locations, even though one species increased its flight initiation distance at the warm-temperate location and another one had lowest activity levels at the coldest range location. The maintenance of feeding and bite rate combined with a decreased activity level and increased sheltering may be behavioural strategies adopted by range-extending tropical fishes, to preserve energy and maintain fitness in their novel temperate ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ericka O C Coni
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, and The Environment Institute, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - David J Booth
- Fish Ecology Lab, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Ivan Nagelkerken
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, and The Environment Institute, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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21
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Lukas K, Stansell HM, Yeh PJ, Nonacs P. Urban junco flight initiation distances correlate with approach velocities of anthropogenic sounds. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2021.2024263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kara Lukas
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Hayley M. Stansell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Pamela J. Yeh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA
| | - Peter Nonacs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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22
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Hammer TL, Bize P, Saraux C, Gineste B, Robin J, Groscolas R, Viblanc VA. Repeatability of alert and flight initiation distances in king penguins: Effects of colony, approach speed, and weather. Ethology 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tracey L. Hammer
- CNRS Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien UMR 7178 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
| | - Pierre Bize
- School of Biological Sciences University of Aberdeen Aberdeen UK
| | - Claire Saraux
- CNRS Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien UMR 7178 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
| | - Benoit Gineste
- CNRS Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien UMR 7178 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
- IPEV – Institut Polaire Français Paul‐Émile‐Victor Plouzané France
| | - Jean‐Patrice Robin
- CNRS Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien UMR 7178 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
| | - René Groscolas
- CNRS Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien UMR 7178 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
| | - Vincent A. Viblanc
- CNRS Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien UMR 7178 University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
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23
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Ventura SPR, Galdino CAB, Peixoto PEC. Fatal attraction: territorial males of a neotropical lizard increase predation risk when females are sexually receptive. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03112-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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24
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Mohanty NP, Wagener C, Herrel A, Thaker M. The ecology of sleep in non-avian reptiles. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:505-526. [PMID: 34708504 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Sleep is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom and yet displays considerable variation in its extent and form in the wild. Ecological factors, such as predation, competition, and microclimate, therefore are likely to play a strong role in shaping characteristics of sleep. Despite the potential for ecological factors to influence various aspects of sleep, the ecological context of sleep in non-avian reptiles remains understudied and without systematic direction. In this review, we examine multiple aspects of reptilian sleep, including (i) habitat selection (sleep sites and their spatio-temporal distribution), (ii) individual-level traits, such as behaviour (sleep postures), morphology (limb morphometrics and body colour), and physiology (sleep architecture), as well as (iii) inter-individual interactions (intra- and inter-specific). Throughout, we discuss the evidence of predation, competition, and thermoregulation in influencing sleep traits and the possible evolutionary consequences of these sleep traits for reptile sociality, morphological specialisation, and habitat partitioning. We also review the ways in which sleep ecology interacts with urbanisation, biological invasions, and climate change. Overall, we not only provide a systematic evaluation of the conceptual and taxonomic biases in the existing literature on reptilian sleep, but also use this opportunity to organise the various ecological hypotheses for sleep characteristics. By highlighting the gaps and providing a prospectus of research directions, our review sets the stage for understanding sleep ecology in the natural world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitya P Mohanty
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India
| | - Carla Wagener
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, 7600, South Africa
| | - Anthony Herrel
- Département Adaptations du Vivant, MECADEV UMR7179 CNRS/MNHN, Paris, France
| | - Maria Thaker
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India
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25
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Shanmugavel Sureshmarimuthu, Babu S, Honnavalli Nagaraj Kumara, Nagaraj Rajeshkumar. Factors influencing the flush response and flight initiation distance of three owl species in the Andaman Islands. JOURNAL OF THREATENED TAXA 2021. [DOI: 10.11609/jott.7339.13.11.19500-19508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Effects of anthropogenic pressures on birds of the Andaman Islands have been documented to some extent, however studies on the effect of human activities on the behavioural response of these birds are limited. This study assessed the anti-predatory behaviour (flush response - FR and flight initiation distance - FID) of three owl species (Otus sunia, Otus balli, and Ninox obscura) in response to human stimuli and factors influencing it on the Andaman Islands. In total, 63 % of owls flushed from their roost sites in response to approaching human, and such a response varied between species. Similarly, FID varied widely among the species ranging from 4.23 to 6.73 m. The FR of N. obscura was influenced by the count of climbers, presence of spine, and branch status, while roost height, ambient temperature, and lower count of climbers contributed to a higher FID. For the two Otus species, camouflage and pairing were found to influence their FR while FID of O. balli was influenced by roost height, pairing, and presence of spines. Our results indicated that the anti-predatory behaviour of owls on the Andaman Islands was species- and site-specific and prolonged disturbance to their roost sites may affect the survival and reproductive rate of these owls.
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26
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Mcelroy EJ, Mcbrayer LD. Escape behaviour varies with distance from safe refuge. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Locomotor performance and behaviour are important for escape from predators, yet the intersection of these strategies is poorly studied. Escape behaviour is context dependent, and optimal escape theory predicts that animals that are farther from a safe refuge will generally use faster running speeds but might choose to use more variable escape paths. We studied locomotor performance and behaviour of six-lined racerunner lizards (Aspidoscelis sexlineata) escaping on natural surface runways that were varied experimentally to be either 5 or 10 m from a safe refuge. On the 5 m runway, lizards usually escaped directly towards the refuge, attained a slower maximal running speed (3.2 m s−1) at ~3 m from the start, and reached the target refuge in most of the trials (80%). On the 10 m runway, lizards used more variable behaviour, including reversals and turns, attained a faster maximal running speed (3.7 m s−1) at ~6 m from the start, and reached the final refuge in only 43% of trials. Free-ranging racerunners were rarely > 5 m from their nearest refuge and used escape paths that were typically < 5 m. Our findings align with predictions from optimal escape theory, in that the perceived risk of a predator–prey encounter can drive adjustments in locomotor behaviour and performance. Additionally, we show that the escape behaviour of free-ranging lizards closely matches their escape behaviour and performance during controlled escape trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Mcelroy
- Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Lance D Mcbrayer
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
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27
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Pikalík M, Pipová N, Majláthová V, Connors VA, Majláth I. Lateralization at the individual and population levels of European green lizard in Slovak Karst. Acta Ethol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10211-021-00382-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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28
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Sutton NM, Weston MA, Guay PJ, Tregoweth J, O’Dwyer JP. A Bayesian optimal escape model reveals bird species differ in their capacity to habituate to humans. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The capacity to habituate to, or tolerate, the close proximity of humans varies among wildlife species and may mediate population and species viability. Some species readily habituate to human proximity while others remain sensitive. These differences are important for predicting human impact on wildlife, but can be difficult to quantify given wildlife responses are highly idiosyncratic and are often context dependent. A general method for assimilating multiple sources of information and variation in individual responses is needed to extract meaningful descriptors of population- and species-level behavior. We apply a previously verified Bayesian optimal escape model to quantify differences in the perceived risk of seven species of waterbird, and generate a metric for species-specific sensitivity by estimating the relative change in risk perception of each species across an environmental gradient from low to high prevailing human activity level. We found that, in general, birds are the least habituated (evidently perceived the highest level of risk from humans) in sites with low human activity and the most habituated (evidently perceived lower levels of risk from humans) in sites with high human activity. Species varied in the degree of these differences, with some insensitive to human activity level, while others were highly sensitive. Aside from improving our ability to study the habituation of wild populations, this method for quantifying risk perception at population and species scales has broad applications in the management and monitoring of wildlife, and may aid in environmental impact assessments and identifying populations/species susceptible to disturbance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Sutton
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Michael A Weston
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
| | - Patrick J Guay
- Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
| | - Jenna Tregoweth
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and the Built Environment, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
| | - James P O’Dwyer
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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29
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Panwar P, Gómez-Ruiz PA, Zipple MN, Sandoval L. Changes in escape behaviour of black iguanas (Ctenosaura similis) over an anthropogenic disturbance gradient. BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Studies on the impact of human activity on animal behaviour are critical for understanding the extent to which humans affect ecological dynamics. Previous studies have found that human presence alters antipredator behaviours, which can be measured by flight initiation distance (FID). We investigated escape behaviour of 96 black iguanas (Ctenosaura similis) across a gradient of human disturbance in six sites inside a protected area in Costa Rica. We used a field experiment to test for effect of human disturbance on FID. We found that individuals from higher disturbance sites had shorter FIDs, meaning that black iguanas from disturbed areas allow closer approaches. This finding is consistent with the prediction that some animals become more habituated to human presence as the degree of human disturbance increases. We propose that black iguanas’ ability to alter their behaviour in response to humans’ presence could make them especially adept at invading new environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Panwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Pilar Angélica Gómez-Ruiz
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, campus Morelia, México
- CONACyT-Universidad Autónoma del Carmen, Centro de Investigación de Ciencias Ambientales, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, México
| | | | - Luis Sandoval
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, San José, Costa Rica
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30
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Torres MDM, Viladrich LJ, Naretto S. Role of coloration in antipredator strategies of Pristidactylus achalensis (Squamata: Leiosauridae) related to sex and stages of predation. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The interaction between behavioural and phenotypic traits, such as coloration, plays a specific role at different stages of the predatory sequence. Cryptic coloration involves a match to the background that reduces the risk of detection, and it is usually optimized by immobility behaviour. In lizards, sexual dichromatism and within-individual changes of colour can influence the level of their crypsis and thus influence antipredator behaviour and the decision to flee. Here, we examined variation in coloration and antipredator behaviour between the sexes of the Achala copper lizard (Pristidactylus achalensis). We measured sexual dichromatism and crypsis in accordance with avian vision. We also exposed lizards to a raptor dummy to assess the colour change and behaviour at the detection and approach stages of the predatory event. Finally, we tested escape behaviour in the natural habitat. We found that males were more conspicuous than females. Additionally, individuals showed distinct behaviours at different stages of the predation simulation, but there were no differences between the sexes. However, in their natural habitat males initiated flight at greater distances than females, which might be related to their more conspicuous coloration. In summary, this study shows how differences in crypsis between the sexes affect escape behaviour during the approach stage of predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Del Milagro Torres
- Laboratorio de Biología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Leonel Jeremías Viladrich
- Laboratorio de Biología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Sergio Naretto
- Laboratorio de Biología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
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31
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Pettit L, Brown GP, Ward‐Fear G, Shine R. Anthropogenically modified habitats favor bigger and bolder lizards. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:1586-1597. [PMID: 33613991 PMCID: PMC7882987 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic activities often create distinctive but discontinuously distributed habitat patches with abundant food but high risk of predation. Such sites can be most effectively utilized by individuals with specific behaviors and morphologies. Thus, a widespread species that contains a diversity of sizes and behavioral types may be pre-adapted to exploiting such hotspots. In eastern Australia, the giant (to >2 m) lizard Varanus varius (lace monitor) utilizes both disturbed (campground) and undisturbed (bushland) habitats. Our surveys of 27 sites show that lizards found in campgrounds tended to be larger and bolder than those in adjacent bushland. This divergence became even more marked after the arrival of a toxic invasive species (the cane toad, Rhinella marina) caused high mortality in larger and bolder lizards. Some of the behavioral divergences between campground and bushland lizards may be secondary consequences of differences in body size, but other habitat-associated divergences in behavior are due to habituation and/or nonrandom mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lachlan Pettit
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Gregory P. Brown
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Georgia Ward‐Fear
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNSWAustralia
| | - Richard Shine
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of SydneySydneyNSWAustralia
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie UniversitySydneyNSWAustralia
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32
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Landry Yuan F, Ito S, Tsang TPN, Kuriyama T, Yamasaki K, Bonebrake TC, Hasegawa M. Predator presence and recent climatic warming raise body temperatures of island lizards. Ecol Lett 2021; 24:533-542. [PMID: 33404198 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In ectothermic predator-prey relationships, evasion of predation by prey depends on physiological and behavioural responses relating to the thermal biology of both predator and prey. On Japan's Izu Islands, we investigated a prey lizard's physiological and thermal responses to the presence of a snake predator over geologic time in addition to recent climatic warming. Foraging lizard body temperatures increased by 1.3 °C from 1981 to 2019 overall, yet were 2.9 °C warmer on snake islands relative to snake-free islands. We also detected snake predator-induced selection on hind leg length, which in turn is a major determinant for sprint speed only in lizard populations exposed to predation by snakes. Accordingly, we found that warmer prey body temperatures result in faster sprint speeds by the prey at temperatures suboptimal for the snake predator, and therefore contribute to escaping predation. Given recent climatic change, further warming could irrevocably alter this and other ectothermic predator-prey relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Landry Yuan
- Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shun Ito
- Graduate School of Life Science, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Japan
| | - Toby P N Tsang
- Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Takeo Kuriyama
- Institute of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Hyogo, Tamba, Japan
| | - Kaede Yamasaki
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Timothy C Bonebrake
- Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Masami Hasegawa
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
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33
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Putman BJ, Pauly GB, Blumstein DT. Urban invaders are not bold risk-takers: a study of 3 invasive lizards in Southern California. Curr Zool 2020; 66:657-665. [PMID: 33391365 PMCID: PMC7769584 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoaa015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological invasions threaten biodiversity worldwide, and therefore, understanding the traits of successful invaders could mitigate their spread. Many commonly invasive species do well in disturbed habitats, such as urban environments, and their abilities to effectively respond to disturbances could contribute to their invasiveness. Yet, there are noninvasive species that also do well in disturbed habitats. The question remains whether urban invaders behave differently in urban environments than noninvaders, which could suggest an "urban-exploiting" phenotype. In Southern California, the co-occurrence of invasive Italian wall lizards Podarcis siculus, brown anoles Anolis sagrei, and green anoles A. carolinensis, and native western fence lizards Sceloporus occidentalis offers an opportunity to test whether invasives exhibit consistent differences in risk-taking within human-altered habitats compared with a native species. We predicted that invasive lizards would exhibit more bold behavior by having shorter flight-initiation distances (FIDs) and by being found farther from a refuge (behaviors that would presumably maximize foraging in low-risk environments). Invasive populations had similar or longer FIDs, but were consistently found at distances closer to a refuge. Collectively, invasive lizards in urban habitats were not bolder than a native species. Reliance on nearby refuges might help species successfully invade urban habitats, and if a general pattern, may pose an added challenge in detecting or eliminating them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breanna J Putman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1606, USA
- Department of Herpetology and Urban Nature Research Center, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, 90007, USA
| | - Gregory B Pauly
- Department of Herpetology and Urban Nature Research Center, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, 90007, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1606, USA
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34
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Dill LM, Frid A. Behaviourally mediated biases in transect surveys: a predation risk sensitivity approach. CAN J ZOOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2020-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Variation in the behaviour of individuals or species, particularly their propensity to avoid or approach human observers, their conveyances (e.g., cars), or their proxy devices (e.g., drones) has been recognized as a source of bias in transect counts. However, there has been little attempt to predict the likelihood or magnitude of such biases. Behavioural ecology provides a rich source of theory to develop a general framework for doing so. For example, if animals perceive observers as predators, then the extensive body of research on responses of prey to their predators may be applied to this issue. Here we survey the literature on flight initiation distance (the distance from a predator or disturbance stimulus at which prey flee) for a variety of taxa to suggest which characteristics of the animal, the observer, and the environment may create negatively biased counts. We also consider factors that might cause prey to approach observers, creating positive bias, and discuss when and why motivation for both approach and avoidance might occur simultaneously and how animals may resolve such trade-offs. Finally, we discuss the potential for predicting the extent of the behaviourally mediated biases that may be expected in transect counts and consider ways of dealing with them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence M. Dill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Alejandro Frid
- Central Coast Indigenous Resource Alliance, 2790 Vargo Road, Campbell River, BC V9W 4X1, Canada; School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 1700, Station CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
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35
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Santoyo-Brito E, Núñez H, Cooper WE, Fox SF. Comparison of Escape Behavior Between Solitary and Grouped Liolaemus leopardinus Lizards from the Central Chilean Andes. HERPETOLOGICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-19-00057.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Santoyo-Brito
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Herman Núñez
- Area Zoología, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Stanley F. Fox
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
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36
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Pellitteri-Rosa D, Lazić M, Gazzola A, Vallortigara G. Righting behaviour in the European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis): relations between behavioural and morphological lateralization. Anim Cogn 2020; 23:989-998. [PMID: 32617750 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01406-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Lateralization represents a key property of many behavioural traits, with the right and left sides of the brain providing different and integrative functions. Common ecological contexts where lateralization can be observed are foraging and predatory ones, where both visual and auditory lateralization may provide advantages such as faster response and increasing neural processing capacity. This is crucial in selecting a safe refuge during a predatory attack and may strongly affect the outcome of predator-prey interactions. For animals like turtles, a critical condition may occur when they are overturned on their own shell, which causes difficulties in breathing and thermoregulation, making them more vulnerable to predators. Therefore, the ability to right is a critical adaptive component related to survival in aquatic turtles, which has been observed to be lateralized. However, an overlooked feature of behavioural lateralization is its possible relationship with asymmetry in external morphology. Here we investigated this topic in freshwater European pond turtles Emys orbicularis, looking at a possible relation between lateralization in righting behaviour response and asymmetry in the shape of turtles' plastron and carapace. Righting performance (total time needed to completely turn) appeared to depend on shell shape. We found that none of the morphometric variables was related to a lateralization index calculated as the first side from which turtles tried to right. However, a strong negative correlation between the asymmetry index of plastron and the turning direction emerged, with more symmetric animals tending to turn to the right side.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Pellitteri-Rosa
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Marko Lazić
- Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig (ZFMK), Adenauerallee 160, 53113, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andrea Gazzola
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, P.zza Manifattura 1, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
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37
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Chen X, Xie W, Shuai L. Flush early and avoid the rush? It may depend on where you stand. Ethology 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xing‐Min Chen
- College of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Wan‐Ting Xie
- College of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Ling‐Ying Shuai
- College of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
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38
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Nishiumi N, Mori A. A game of patience between predator and prey: waiting for opponent’s action determines successful capture or escape. CAN J ZOOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2019-0164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
When predator and prey animals face each other, preemptive actions by both sides are considered to mediate successful capture or escape. However, in spite of the general presumption, some animals, such as predatory snakes and their frog prey, occasionally remain motionless or move slowly for a while before striking or escaping, respectively. To clarify the possible advantages of this behaviour, we examined interactions between Japanese Four-lined Ratsnakes (Elaphe quadrivirgata (H. Boie, 1826)) and Black-spotted Pond Frogs (Pelophylax nigromaculatus (Hallowell, 1861)), focusing especially on kinematic features of strike behaviour of snakes and flight behaviour of frogs in close quarters. Staged encounter experiments and field observations revealed that counteractions against an opponent’s preemptive actions are effective for both snakes and frogs until a certain distance because they are hardly able to change their trajectories once they initiate strike or escape behaviours. Snakes and frogs also appropriately switched their behaviour from waiting for the opponent’s action to taking preemptive action at this threshold distance. These results suggested the occurrence of a game of patience between snakes and frogs in which they wait for the opponent’s action to achieve effective countermeasures. Our study provides new insights for predicting optimal decision-making by predators and prey and will contribute to a better understanding of their strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nozomi Nishiumi
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Akira Mori
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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39
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Andrade M, Blumstein DT. Anti-predator behavior along elevational and latitudinal gradients in dark-eyed juncos. Curr Zool 2020; 66:239-245. [PMID: 32440284 PMCID: PMC7234012 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Flight-initiation distance (FID), the distance between an individual and experimenter when it begins to flee, can be used to quantify risk-assessment. Among other factors, prior studies have shown that latitude explains significant variation in avian FID: at lower latitudes, individuals and species have longer FIDs than those living at higher latitudes. No prior studies have focused on the effect of elevation on FID. Given the similar patterns of seasonality, climate, and potentially predator density, that covary between latitude and elevation, birds at higher elevations might tolerate closer approaches. We asked whether elevation or latitude would explain more variation in the FID of a common passerine bird species, dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis). Juncos live in a variety of habitats along both latitudinal and elevational gradients. We found that statistical models containing elevation as a variable explained more of the variation in FID than did models containing latitude. We also found, unexpectedly, that birds at higher elevation fled at greater distances. While more predators were sighted per hour at higher elevations than at lower elevations, the frequency of predator sightings did not explain a significant amount of variation in FID. This result questions whether predator density is the main driver of risk perception along elevational gradients. Nonetheless, because elevation explains more variation in FID than latitude in at least one species, these findings have direct implications on how human impacts on birds are managed. Specifically, those designing set-back zones to reduce human impact on birds may consider modifying them based on both latitude and elevation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madelin Andrade
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 621 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 621 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
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40
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Maslo B, Burkhalter JC, Bushek D, Yuhas T, Schumm B, Burger J, Lockwood JL. Assessing conservation conflict: Does intertidal oyster aquaculture inhibit foraging behavior of migratory shorebirds? Ecosphere 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Maslo
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick New Jersey 08901 USA
| | | | - David Bushek
- Haskin Shellfish Research Lab New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Port Norris New Jersey 08349 USA
| | - Tanner Yuhas
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick New Jersey 08901 USA
| | - Brian Schumm
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick New Jersey 08901 USA
| | - Joanna Burger
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick New Jersey 08901 USA
- Division of Life Sciences Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Piscataway New Jersey 08854 USA
| | - Julie L. Lockwood
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick New Jersey 08901 USA
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41
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Sabal MC, Merz JE, Alonzo SH, Palkovacs EP. An escape theory model for directionally moving prey and an experimental test in juvenile Chinook salmon. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:1824-1836. [PMID: 32267534 PMCID: PMC7497163 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prey evaluate risk and make decisions based on the balance between the costs of predation and those of engaging in antipredator behaviour. Economic escape theory has been valuable in understanding the responses of stationary prey under predation risk; however, current models are not applicable for directionally moving prey. Here we present an extension of existing escape theory that predicts how much predation risk is perceived by directionally moving prey. Perceived risk is measured by the extent antipredator behaviour causes a change in travel speed (the distance to a destination divided by the total time to reach that destination). Cryptic or cautious antipredator behaviour slows travel speed, while prey may also speed up to reduce predator–prey overlap. Next, we applied the sensitization hypothesis to our model, which predicts that prey with more predator experience should engage in more antipredator behaviour, which leads to a larger change in travel speed under predation risk. We then compared the qualitative predictions of our model to the results of a behavioural assay with juvenile Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha that varied in their past predator experience. We timed salmon swimming downstream through a mesh enclosure in the river with and without predator cues present to measure their reaction to a predator. Hatchery salmon had the least predator experience, followed by wild salmon captured upstream (wild‐upstream) and wild‐salmon captured downstream (wild‐downstream). Both wild salmon groups slowed down in response to predator cues, whereas hatchery salmon did not change travel speed. The magnitude of reaction to predator cues by salmon group followed the gradient of previous predator experience, supporting the sensitization hypothesis. Moving animals are conspicuous and vulnerable to predators. Here we provide a novel conceptual framework for understanding how directionally moving prey perceive risk and make antipredator decisions. Our study extends the scope of economic escape theory and improves general understanding of non‐lethal effects of predators on moving prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan C Sabal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Joseph E Merz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA.,Cramer Fish Sciences, West Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Suzanne H Alonzo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Eric P Palkovacs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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Abstract
AbstractTourists approaching wild animals can potentially cause disturbance as a result of the perceived predation risk. Risk effects arise when prey alter their behaviour in response to predators. This response may carry costs through its impact on fitness-related activities such as foraging. We recorded behavioural responses of whale sharks Rhincodon typus to experimental vessel and swimmer approaches. We simulated the disturbance caused by ecotourism in the foraging site of this planktivorous fish in Bahia de Los Angeles, Gulf of Baja California, Mexico. Stress-related behaviours (vigilance, change of direction, diving and acceleration) were more common directly after both types of disturbance than before, in particular after approach by a swimmer. Individuals were more likely to be vigilant when they were new to the bay, but we did not find evidence of within-season behavioural habituation. Sharks were 24% more likely to forage before human stimuli than after. Our study highlights negative effects of vessel and swimmer approaches on whale shark behaviour, with a short-term increase in stress-related behaviours potentially carrying energetic costs, combined with a decrease in food intake following the disturbance. Our results indicate concerns about the impact of ecotourism on large fish species. An important next step would be to determine whether these short-term behavioural responses to the perception of predation risk negatively affect fitness. Among other guidelines, we recommend preventing swimmers from approaching if whale sharks stop feeding when a vessel approaches.
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Zamora-Camacho FJ. Toads modulate flight strategy according to distance to refuge. ZOOLOGY 2020; 139:125741. [PMID: 32062301 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.125741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Among antipredator behaviours, escaping and hiding in a refuge are widespread in nature. Frequently, threatened prey flee towards a refuge nearby, if available. Therefore, refuge proximity may affect the fleeing strategy of a prey. In this work, I tested this hypothesis in Epidalea calamita, a cursorial toad that flees by means of intermittent runs. In a linear runway in standardized conditions, toads were recorded while conducting a short-distance (refuge at 70 cm), a medium-distance (refuge at 140 cm, divided in two 70-cm tracks), and a long-distance trial (refuge at 210 cm, divided in three 70-cm tracks), in a random sequence. Video analyses permitted to calculate sprint speed and run rates (number of runs per meter) in each track. Distance to refuge affected toad flight strategy. Toads started flights at a faster speed in the short-distance trials. In the medium- and the long-distance trials, toads accelerated after the first track, seemingly not motivated by refuge proximity. In these trials, run rate was greater in the first tracks. Altogether, these findings suggest that threatened toads respond firstly with slow, intermittent movements, and only shift to less intermittent, faster sprints if the threat persists. However, run rate was lower in the short-distance trial than in the first tracks of the other trials, suggesting straighter (and faster) flight toward the refuge when it is close. The effects of refuge proximity were greater in males, which (jointly with faster sprint speed) could reflect a greater conspicuousness of males to predator resulting in better escape strategies.
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Dowdy NJ, Conner WE. Nonchalant Flight in Tiger Moths (Erebidae: Arctiinae) Is Correlated With Unpalatability. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Abstract
Throughout the world, areas have been reserved for their exceptional environmental values, such as high biodiversity. Financial, political and community support for these protected areas is often dependent on visitation by nature-based tourists. This visitation inevitably creates environmental impacts, such as the construction and maintenance of roads, tracks and trails; trampling of vegetation and erosion of soils; and propagation of disturbance of resilient species, such as weeds. This creates tension between the conservation of environmental values and visitation. This review examines some of the main features of environmental impacts by nature-based tourists through a discussion of observational and manipulative studies. It explores the disturbance context and unravels the management implications of detecting impacts and understanding their causes. Regulation of access to visitor areas is a typical management response, qualified by the mode of access (e.g., vehicular, ambulatory). Managing access and associated impacts are reviewed in relation to roads, tracks and trails; wildlife viewing; and accommodations. Responses to visitor impacts, such as environmental education and sustainable tour experiences are explored. The review concludes with ten recommendations for further research in order to better resolve the tension between nature conservation and nature-based tourism.
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46
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Eason PK, Nason LD, Alexander Jr. JE. Squirrels Do the Math: Flight Trajectories in Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis). Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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47
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Shuai L, Zhou Y, Yang Y, Xue Q, Xie Z, Zhang F. Ecological factors affecting flight initiation distance in Daurian ground squirrels (
Spermophilus dauricus
). Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ling‐Ying Shuai
- School of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Yang Zhou
- School of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Yu‐Xia Yang
- School of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Qi‐Qian Xue
- School of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Zi‐Yang Xie
- School of Life Sciences Huaibei Normal University Huaibei China
| | - Fu‐Shun Zhang
- Grassland Research Institute Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Hohhot China
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48
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Møller AP, Liang W, Samia DSM. Flight initiation distance, color and camouflage. Curr Zool 2019; 65:535-540. [PMID: 31616484 PMCID: PMC6784497 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Camouflage is widespread throughout the animal kingdom allowing individuals to avoid detection and hence save time and energy rather than escape from an approaching predator. Thus, camouflage is likely to have co-evolved with antipredator behavior. Here, we propose that camouflage results in dichotomous escape behavior within and among species with classes of individuals and species with cryptic coloration having shorter flight initiation distances (FIDs; the distance at which an individual takes flight when approached by a human). We report the results of 2 tests of this hypothesis. First, bird species with cryptically colored plumage have consistently shorter FID than closely related species without such color. Within species with sexually dimorphic plumage, brightly colored adult male common pheasants Phasianus colchicus and golden pheasants Chrysolophus pictus have long and variable FID, whereas cryptically colored juveniles and adult females have short and invariable FID. Second, FID in females was predicted by presence or absence of cryptic color, FID in males and their interaction. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that risk-taking behavior has been attuned to camouflage, and that species with different levels of camouflage differ consistently in their FID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Pape Møller
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, CNRS UMR, Université Paris-Sud, Batiment 362, Orsay Cedex, France.,Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Liang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, China
| | - Diogo S M Samia
- Department of Ecology, Federal University of Goias, Goiania, Brazil
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Wind farms have cascading impacts on ecosystems across trophic levels. Nat Ecol Evol 2018; 2:1854-1858. [PMID: 30397304 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-018-0707-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Wind farms are a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels for mitigating the effects of climate change, but they also have complex ecological consequences. In the biodiversity hotspot of the Western Ghats in India, we find that wind farms reduce the abundance and activity of predatory birds (for example, Buteo, Butastur and Elanus species), which consequently increases the density of lizards, Sarada superba. The cascading effects of wind turbines on lizards include changes in behaviour, physiology and morphology that reflect a combination of predator release and density-dependent competition. By adding an effective trophic level to the top of food webs, we find that wind farms have emerging impacts that are greatly underestimated. There is thus a strong need for an ecosystem-wide view when aligning green-energy goals with environment protection.
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50
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Foster KL, Garland T, Schmitz L, Higham TE. Skink ecomorphology: forelimb and hind limb lengths, but not static stability, correlate with habitat use and demonstrate multiple solutions. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen L Foster
- University of California, Riverside, University Ave., Riverside, CA, USA
- University of Ottawa, Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Theodore Garland
- University of California, Riverside, University Ave., Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Lars Schmitz
- W.M. Keck Science Department, Claremont McKenna, Scripps, and Pitzer Colleges, N Mills Ave., Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- University of California, Riverside, University Ave., Riverside, CA, USA
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