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Mantzana-Oikonomaki V, Desreveaux A, Preißler K, Maan ME, Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Sabino-Pinto J. FIRST RECORD OF BATRACHOCHYTRIUM DENDROBATIDIS IN THE NORTHERN NETHERLANDS. J Parasitol 2024; 110:11-16. [PMID: 38232760 DOI: 10.1645/22-126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) infects amphibians and has been linked to the decline of hundreds of anuran amphibians all over the world. In the province of Groningen in the Netherlands, this fungal pathogen was not detected before this study. To determine whether Groningen was Bd-free, we surveyed 12 locations in this province in 2020 and 2021. Samples were then used to quantify the presence of Bd with a qPCR assay. In total, 2 out of 110 (∼0.02%) collected in 2020 and 11 out of 249 samples collected in 2021 tested positive for Bd. Infected amphibians were found in 4 out of the 12 sites, and the prevalence of Bd was estimated at 4% for both years combined. Our study provides the first record of Bd in Groningen, and we hypothesize that Bd is present throughout the Netherlands in regions currently considered "Bd-free." Furthermore, we warn scientists and policymakers to be apprehensive when calling a site free from Bd when sampling is limited or not recent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Mantzana-Oikonomaki
- University of Groningen, GELIFES (Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Desreveaux
- University of Groningen, GELIFES (Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Kathleen Preißler
- Institute of Biology, Molecular Evolution and Systematics of Animals, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martine E Maan
- University of Groningen, GELIFES (Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Annemarieke Spitzen-van der Sluijs
- Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation Netherlands (RAVON), PO Box 1413, 5601 BK Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Animal Ecology and Physiology, Radboud Universiteit, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Joana Sabino-Pinto
- University of Groningen, GELIFES (Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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Moubarak M, Fischhoff IR, Han BA, Castellanos AA. A spatially explicit risk assessment of salamander populations to
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
in the United States. DIVERS DISTRIB 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Barbara A. Han
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies Millbrook New York USA
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3
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Palomar G, Jakóbik J, Bosch J, Kolenda K, Kaczmarski M, Jośko P, Roces-Díaz JV, Stachyra P, Thumsová B, Zieliński P, Pabijan M. Emerging infectious diseases of amphibians in Poland: distribution and environmental drivers. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2021; 147:1-12. [PMID: 34734569 DOI: 10.3354/dao03631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases are a threat to biodiversity and have taken a large toll on amphibian populations worldwide. The chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal), and the iridovirus Ranavirus (Rv), are of concern as all have contributed to amphibian declines. In central and eastern Europe, their geographical and host distributions and main environmental drivers determining prevalence are poorly known. We screened over 1000 amphibians from natural and captive populations in Poland for the presence of Bd, Bsal and Rv. In wild amphibian populations, we found that Bd is widespread, present in 46 out of 115 sampled localities as well as 2 captive colonies, and relatively common with overall prevalence at 14.4% in 9 species. We found lower prevalence of Rv at 2.4%, present in 11 out of 92 sampling sites, with a taxonomic breadth of 8 different amphibian species. Bsal infection was not detected in any individuals. In natural populations, Pelophylax esculentus and Bombina variegata accounted for 75% of all Bd infections, suggesting a major role for these 2 species as pathogen reservoirs in Central European freshwater habitats. General linear models showed that climatic as well as landscape features are associated with Bd infection in Poland. We found that higher average annual temperature constrains Bd infection, while landscapes with numerous water bodies or artificial elements (a surrogate for urbanization) increase the chances of infection. Our results show that a combination of climatic and landscape variables may drive regional and local pathogen emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Palomar
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
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4
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De Troyer N, Bruneel S, Lock K, Greener MS, Facq E, Deknock A, Martel A, Pasmans F, Goethals P. Ratio-dependent functional response of two common Cladocera present in farmland ponds to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. FUNGAL ECOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2021.101089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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5
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Fisher MC, Pasmans F, Martel A. Virulence and Pathogenicity of Chytrid Fungi Causing Amphibian Extinctions. Annu Rev Microbiol 2021; 75:673-693. [PMID: 34351790 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-052621-124212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ancient enzootic associations between wildlife and their infections allow evolution to innovate mechanisms of pathogenicity that are counterbalanced by host responses. However, erosion of barriers to pathogen dispersal by globalization leads to the infection of hosts that have not evolved effective resistance and the emergence of highly virulent infections. Global amphibian declines driven by the rise of chytrid fungi and chytridiomycosis are emblematic of emerging infections. Here, we review how modern biological methods have been used to understand the adaptations and counteradaptations that these fungi and their amphibian hosts have evolved. We explore the interplay of biotic and abiotic factors that modify the virulence of these infections and dissect the complexity of this disease system. We highlight progress that has led to insights into how we might in the future lessen the impact of these emerging infections. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology, Volume 75 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C Fisher
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, United Kingdom;
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - An Martel
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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6
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TEMPERATURE AS A DRIVER OF THE PATHOGENICITY AND VIRULENCE OF AMPHIBIAN CHYTRID FUNGUS BATRACHOCHYTRIUM DENDROBATIDIS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57:477-494. [PMID: 34019674 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-20-00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is a leading cause of global amphibian declines. Severe infections with Bd can lead to cardiac arrest, and mass deaths during epidemics have been reported. Temperature, pH, salinity, and moisture are important determinants of the survival, growth, reproduction, and pathogenicity of Bd, as well as its effect on amphibian populations. Here, we synthesize current knowledge on the role of temperature as a driver of the pathogenicity and virulence of Bd to better understand the effects of temperature on amphibian defense mechanisms against infection. This review advises on research direction and management approaches to benefit amphibian populations affected by Bd. We conclude by offering guidelines for four levels of temperature monitoring in amphibian field studies to improve consistency between studies: regional climate, habitat, microhabitat, and amphibian host.
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8
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Presence of low virulence chytrid fungi could protect European amphibians from more deadly strains. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5393. [PMID: 33106491 PMCID: PMC7589487 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19241-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Wildlife diseases are contributing to the current Earth’s sixth mass extinction; one disease, chytridiomycosis, has caused mass amphibian die-offs. While global spread of a hypervirulent lineage of the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (BdGPL) causes unprecedented loss of vertebrate diversity by decimating amphibian populations, its impact on amphibian communities is highly variable across regions. Here, we combine field data with in vitro and in vivo trials that demonstrate the presence of a markedly diverse variety of low virulence isolates of BdGPL in northern European amphibian communities. Pre-exposure to some of these low virulence isolates protects against disease following subsequent exposure to highly virulent BdGPL in midwife toads (Alytes obstetricans) and alters infection dynamics of its sister species B. salamandrivorans in newts (Triturus marmoratus), but not in salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). The key role of pathogen virulence in the complex host-pathogen-environment interaction supports efforts to limit pathogen pollution in a globalized world. The pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (BD) associated with widespread amphibian declines is present in Europe but has not consistently caused disease-induced declines in that region. Here, the authors suggest that an endemic strain of BD with low virulence may protect the hosts upon co-infection with more virulent strains.
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De Troyer N, Eurie Forio MA, Roels K, De Meester L, Lemmens P, Declerck SA, Martens K, Goethals P. Key management rules for agricultural alpine newt breeding ponds based on habitat suitability models. Glob Ecol Conserv 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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10
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Scheele BC, Pasmans F, Skerratt LF, Berger L, Martel A, Beukema W, Acevedo AA, Burrowes PA, Carvalho T, Catenazzi A, De la Riva I, Fisher MC, Flechas SV, Foster CN, Frías-Álvarez P, Garner TWJ, Gratwicke B, Guayasamin JM, Hirschfeld M, Kolby JE, Kosch TA, La Marca E, Lindenmayer DB, Lips KR, Longo AV, Maneyro R, McDonald CA, Mendelson J, Palacios-Rodriguez P, Parra-Olea G, Richards-Zawacki CL, Rödel MO, Rovito SM, Soto-Azat C, Toledo LF, Voyles J, Weldon C, Whitfield SM, Wilkinson M, Zamudio KR, Canessa S. Amphibian fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity. Science 2019; 363:1459-1463. [PMID: 30923224 DOI: 10.1126/science.aav0379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 568] [Impact Index Per Article: 113.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Anthropogenic trade and development have broken down dispersal barriers, facilitating the spread of diseases that threaten Earth's biodiversity. We present a global, quantitative assessment of the amphibian chytridiomycosis panzootic, one of the most impactful examples of disease spread, and demonstrate its role in the decline of at least 501 amphibian species over the past half-century, including 90 presumed extinctions. The effects of chytridiomycosis have been greatest in large-bodied, range-restricted anurans in wet climates in the Americas and Australia. Declines peaked in the 1980s, and only 12% of declined species show signs of recovery, whereas 39% are experiencing ongoing decline. There is risk of further chytridiomycosis outbreaks in new areas. The chytridiomycosis panzootic represents the greatest recorded loss of biodiversity attributable to a disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben C Scheele
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. .,National Environmental Science Programme, Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology, and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Lee F Skerratt
- One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia
| | - Lee Berger
- One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia
| | - An Martel
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology, and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Wouter Beukema
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology, and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Aldemar A Acevedo
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins 340, Santiago, Chile.,Grupo de Investigación en Ecología y Biogeografía, Universidad de Pamplona, Barrio El Buque, Km 1, Vía a Bucaramanga, Pamplona, Colombia
| | - Patricia A Burrowes
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, P.O. Box 23360, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Tamilie Carvalho
- Laboratório de História Natural de Anfíbios Brasileiros (LaHNAB), Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Catenazzi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Ignacio De la Riva
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, C/ José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, Madrid 28006, Spain
| | - Matthew C Fisher
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Sandra V Flechas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.,Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Sede Venado de Oro, Paseo Bolívar 16-20, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Claire N Foster
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Patricia Frías-Álvarez
- One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia
| | - Trenton W J Garner
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK.,Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Brian Gratwicke
- Smithsonian National Zoological Park and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC 20008, USA
| | - Juan M Guayasamin
- Universidad San Francisco de Quito USFQ, Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales COCIBA, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Ambientales BIOSFERA, Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva, Campus Cumbayá, Quito, Ecuador.,Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático (BioCamb), Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático, Facultad de Medio Ambiente, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Calle Machala y Sabanilla, Quito, Ecuador.,Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Mareike Hirschfeld
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstr. 43, Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Jonathan E Kolby
- One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia.,Honduras Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Center, Lancetilla Botanical Garden and Research Center, Tela, Honduras.,The Conservation Agency, Jamestown, RI 02835, USA
| | - Tiffany A Kosch
- One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia.,AL Rae Centre for Genetics and Breeding, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
| | - Enrique La Marca
- School of Geography, Faculty of Forestry Engineering and Environmental Sciences, University of Los Andes, Merida, Venezuela
| | - David B Lindenmayer
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,National Environmental Science Programme, Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Karen R Lips
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Ana V Longo
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Raúl Maneyro
- Laboratorio de Sistemática e Historia Natural de Vertebrados. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República. Igua 4225, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Cait A McDonald
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Joseph Mendelson
- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA.,School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | | | - Gabriela Parra-Olea
- Departamento de Zoología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, México
| | | | - Mark-Oliver Rödel
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstr. 43, Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Sean M Rovito
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (Langebio), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, km 9.6 Libramiento Norte Carretera Irapuato-León, Irapuato, Guanajuato CP36824, México
| | - Claudio Soto-Azat
- Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370251, Chile
| | - Luís Felipe Toledo
- Laboratório de História Natural de Anfíbios Brasileiros (LaHNAB), Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Jamie Voyles
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Ché Weldon
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Steven M Whitfield
- Zoo Miami, Conservation and Research Department, Miami, FL 33177, USA.,Florida International University School of Earth, Environment, and Society, 11200 SW 8th St., Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Kelly R Zamudio
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Stefano Canessa
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology, and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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11
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Bacigalupe LD, Vásquez IA, Estay SA, Valenzuela‐Sánchez A, Alvarado‐Rybak M, Peñafiel‐Ricaurte A, Cunningham AA, Soto‐Azat C. The amphibian‐killing fungus in a biodiversity hotspot: identifying and validating high‐risk areas and refugia. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo D. Bacigalupe
- Facultad de Ciencias Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas Universidad Austral de Chile Valdivia Chile
| | - Inao A. Vásquez
- Facultad de Ciencias Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas Universidad Austral de Chile Valdivia Chile
| | - Sergio A. Estay
- Facultad de Ciencias Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas Universidad Austral de Chile Valdivia Chile
- Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago Chile
| | - Andrés Valenzuela‐Sánchez
- Facultad de Ciencias Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas Universidad Austral de Chile Valdivia Chile
- ONG Ranita de Darwin Santiago Chile
| | - Mario Alvarado‐Rybak
- Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida & Doctorado en Medicina de la Conservación Universidad Andrés Bello Santiago Chile
- Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London Regent's Park London NW1 4RY UK
| | - Alexandra Peñafiel‐Ricaurte
- Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida & Doctorado en Medicina de la Conservación Universidad Andrés Bello Santiago Chile
- Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London Regent's Park London NW1 4RY UK
| | - Andrew A. Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London Regent's Park London NW1 4RY UK
| | - Claudio Soto‐Azat
- Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida & Doctorado en Medicina de la Conservación Universidad Andrés Bello Santiago Chile
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12
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Kärvemo S, Laurila A, Höglund J. Urban environment and reservoir host species are associated with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection prevalence in the common toad. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2019; 134:33-42. [PMID: 32132271 DOI: 10.3354/dao03359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Human-induced changes of the environment, including landscape alteration and habitat loss, may affect wildlife disease dynamics and have important ramifications for wildlife conservation. Amphibians are among the vertebrate taxa most threatened by anthropogenic habitat change. The emerging fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused extinctions and population declines in hundreds of anuran species globally. We studied how the urban landscape is associated with the prevalence of Bd infections by sampling 655 anurans of 3 species (mainly the common toad Bufo bufo) in 42 ponds surrounded by different amounts of urban habitat (defined as towns, cities or villages). We also examined the association between Bd infections and a potential reservoir host species (the moor frog Rana arvalis). We found that 38% of the sites were positive for Bd with an infection prevalence of 4.4%. The extent of urban landscape was negatively correlated with Bd infection prevalence. However, the positive association of Bd with the presence of the possible reservoir species was substantially stronger than the urban effects. The body condition index of B. bufo was negatively associated with Bd infection. This Bd effect was stronger than the negative effect of urban landscape on body condition. Our results suggest that urban environments in Sweden have a negative impact on Bd infections, while the presence of the reservoir species has a positive impact on Bd prevalence. Our study also highlights the potential importance of Bd infection on host fitness, especially in rural landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Kärvemo
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
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13
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Longo AV, Fleischer RC, Lips KR. Double trouble: co-infections of chytrid fungi will severely impact widely distributed newts. Biol Invasions 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-019-01973-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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14
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Kärvemo S, Meurling S, Berger D, Höglund J, Laurila A. Effects of host species and environmental factors on the prevalence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in northern Europe. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0199852. [PMID: 30359384 PMCID: PMC6201871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) poses a major threat to amphibian populations. To assist efforts to address such threats, we examined differences in Bd host infection prevalence among amphibian species and its relations to both local environmental factors in breeding habitats and landscape variables measured at three scales (500, 2000 and 5000 m radii) around breeding sites in southernmost Sweden. We sampled 947 anurans of six species in 31 ponds and assessed their infection status. We then examined correlations of infection prevalence with canopy cover, pond perimeter and pH (treated as local-scale pond characteristics), and the number of ponds, area of arable land, area of mature forest, number of resident people and presence of sea within the three radii (treated as landscape variables). The Bd infection prevalence was very low, 0.5–1.0%, in two of the six anuran species (Bufo bufo and Rana temporaria), and substantially higher (13–64%) in the other four (Bombina bombina, Bufotes variabilis, Epidalea calamita, Rana arvalis). In the latter four species Bd infection prevalence was positively associated with ponds’ pH (site range: 5.3–8.1), and negatively associated with areas of mature forest and/or wetlands in the surroundings. Our results show that the infection dynamics of Bd are complex and associated with host species, local pond characteristics and several landscape variables at larger spatial scales. Knowledge of environmental factors associated with Bd infections and differences in species’ susceptibility may help to counter further spread of the disease and guide conservation action plans, especially for the most threatened species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Kärvemo
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Sara Meurling
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - David Berger
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jacob Höglund
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anssi Laurila
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
Many infectious diseases originating from, or carried by, wildlife affect wildlife conservation and biodiversity, livestock health, or human health. We provide an update on changes in the epidemiology of 25 selected infectious, wildlife-related diseases in Europe (from 2010-16) that had an impact, or may have a future impact, on the health of wildlife, livestock, and humans. These pathogens were selected based on their: 1) identification in recent Europe-wide projects as important surveillance targets, 2) inclusion in European Union legislation as pathogens requiring obligatory surveillance, 3) presence in recent literature on wildlife-related diseases in Europe since 2010, 4) inclusion in key pathogen lists released by the Office International des Epizooties, 5) identification in conference presentations and informal discussions on a group email list by a European network of wildlife disease scientists from the European Wildlife Disease Association, or 6) identification as pathogens with changes in their epidemiology during 2010-16. The wildlife pathogens or diseases included in this review are: avian influenza virus, seal influenza virus, lagoviruses, rabies virus, bat lyssaviruses, filoviruses, canine distemper virus, morbilliviruses in aquatic mammals, bluetongue virus, West Nile virus, hantaviruses, Schmallenberg virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, African swine fever virus, amphibian ranavirus, hepatitis E virus, bovine tuberculosis ( Mycobacterium bovis), tularemia ( Francisella tularensis), brucellosis ( Brucella spp.), salmonellosis ( Salmonella spp.), Coxiella burnetii, chytridiomycosis, Echinococcus multilocularis, Leishmania infantum, and chronic wasting disease. Further work is needed to identify all of the key drivers of disease change and emergence, as they appear to be influencing the incidence and spread of these pathogens in Europe. We present a summary of these recent changes during 2010-16 to discuss possible commonalities and drivers of disease change and to identify directions for future work on wildlife-related diseases in Europe. Many of the pathogens are entering Europe from other continents while others are expanding their ranges inside and beyond Europe. Surveillance for these wildlife-related diseases at a continental scale is therefore important for planet-wide assessment, awareness of, and preparedness for the risks they may pose to wildlife, domestic animal, and human health.
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Effects of Emerging Infectious Diseases on Amphibians: A Review of Experimental Studies. DIVERSITY-BASEL 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/d10030081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Numerous factors are contributing to the loss of biodiversity. These include complex effects of multiple abiotic and biotic stressors that may drive population losses. These losses are especially illustrated by amphibians, whose populations are declining worldwide. The causes of amphibian population declines are multifaceted and context-dependent. One major factor affecting amphibian populations is emerging infectious disease. Several pathogens and their associated diseases are especially significant contributors to amphibian population declines. These include the fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans, and ranaviruses. In this review, we assess the effects of these three pathogens on amphibian hosts as found through experimental studies. Such studies offer valuable insights to the causal factors underpinning broad patterns reported through observational studies. We summarize key findings from experimental studies in the laboratory, in mesocosms, and from the field. We also summarize experiments that explore the interactive effects of these pathogens with other contributors of amphibian population declines. Though well-designed experimental studies are critical for understanding the impacts of disease, inconsistencies in experimental methodologies limit our ability to form comparisons and conclusions. Studies of the three pathogens we focus on show that host susceptibility varies with such factors as species, host age, life history stage, population and biotic (e.g., presence of competitors, predators) and abiotic conditions (e.g., temperature, presence of contaminants), as well as the strain and dose of the pathogen, to which hosts are exposed. Our findings suggest the importance of implementing standard protocols and reporting for experimental studies of amphibian disease.
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Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Canessa S, Martel A, Pasmans F. Fragile coexistence of a global chytrid pathogen with amphibian populations is mediated by environment and demography. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.1444. [PMID: 28978729 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Unravelling the multiple interacting drivers of host-pathogen coexistence is crucial in understanding how an apparently stable state of endemism may shift towards an epidemic and lead to biodiversity loss. Here, we investigate the apparent coexistence of the global amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) with Bombina variegata populations in The Netherlands over a 7-year period. We used a multi-season mark-recapture dataset and assessed potential drivers of coexistence (individual condition, environmental mediation and demographic compensation) at the individual and population levels. We show that even in a situation with a clear cost incurred by endemic Bd, population sizes remain largely stable. Current environmental conditions and an over-dispersed pathogen load probably stabilize disease dynamics, but as higher temperatures increase infection probability, changing environmental conditions, for example a climate-change-driven rise in temperature, could unbalance the current fragile host-pathogen equilibrium. Understanding the proximate mechanisms of such environmental mediation and of site-specific differences in infection dynamics can provide vital information for mitigation actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemarieke Spitzen-van der Sluijs
- Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation Netherlands, PO Box 1413, 6501 BK Nijmegen, The Netherlands .,Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Stefano Canessa
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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18
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Yap TA, Koo MS, Ambrose RF, Vredenburg VT. Introduced bullfrog facilitates pathogen invasion in the western United States. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0188384. [PMID: 29659568 PMCID: PMC5901863 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a causal agent of the amphibian fungal skin disease chytridiomycosis, has been implicated in the decline and extinction of over 200 species worldwide since the 1970s. Despite almost two decades of research, the history of Bd and its global spread is not well understood. However, the spread of the Global Panzootic Lineage of Bd (Bd-GPL), the lineage associated with amphibian die-offs, has been linked with the American bullfrog (Rana [Aqurana] catesbeiana) and global trade. Interestingly, R. catesbeiana is native to the eastern U.S., where no Bd-related declines have been observed despite Bd’s presence since the late 1800s. In contrast Bd has been found to have emerged in California and Mexico in the 1960s and 1970s, after which epizootics (i.e., epidemics in wildlife) ensued. We hypothesize that Bd-GPL spread from the eastern U.S. with the introduction of R. catesbeiana into the western US, resulting in epizootics and declines of native host species. Using museum records, we investigated the historical relationship between R. catesbeiana and Bd invasion in the western US and found that R. catesbeiana arrived in the same year or prior to Bd in most western watersheds that had data for both species, suggesting that Bd-GPL may have originated in the eastern US and R. catesbeiana may have facilitated Bd invasion in the western US. To predict areas with greatest suitability for Bd, we created a suitability model by integrating habitat suitability and host availability. When we incorporated invasion history with high Bd suitability, we found that watersheds with non-native R. catesbeiana in the mountain ranges of the West Coast have the highest disease risk. These findings shed light on the invasion history and disease dynamics of Bd in North America. Targeted historical surveys using archived specimens in natural history collections and present-day field surveys along with more localized, community-level studies, monitoring, and surveillance are needed to further test this hypothesis and grow our understanding of the disease ecology and host-pathogen dynamics of Bd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany A. Yap
- Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Michelle S. Koo
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Richard F. Ambrose
- Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Vance T. Vredenburg
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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19
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Lips KR. Overview of chytrid emergence and impacts on amphibians. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0465. [PMID: 28080989 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chytridiomycosis is an emerging infectious disease of amphibians that affects over 700 species on all continents where amphibians occur. The amphibian-chytridiomycosis system is complex, and the response of any amphibian species to chytrid depends on many aspects of the ecology and evolutionary history of the amphibian, the genotype and phenotype of the fungus, and how the biological and physical environment can mediate that interaction. Impacts of chytridiomycosis on amphibians are varied; some species have been driven extinct, populations of others have declined severely, whereas still others have not obviously declined. Understanding patterns and mechanisms of amphibian responses to chytrids is critical for conservation and management. Robust estimates of population numbers are needed to identify species at risk, prioritize taxa for conservation actions, design management strategies for managing populations and species, and to develop effective measures to reduce impacts of chytrids on amphibians.This article is part of the themed issue 'Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen R Lips
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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20
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Garner TWJ, Schmidt BR, Martel A, Pasmans F, Muths E, Cunningham AA, Weldon C, Fisher MC, Bosch J. Mitigating amphibian chytridiomycoses in nature. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2016.0207. [PMID: 28080996 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphibians across the planet face the threat of population decline and extirpation caused by the disease chytridiomycosis. Despite consensus that the fungal pathogens responsible for the disease are conservation issues, strategies to mitigate their impacts in the natural world are, at best, nascent. Reducing risk associated with the movement of amphibians, non-amphibian vectors and other sources of infection remains the first line of defence and a primary objective when mitigating the threat of disease in wildlife. Amphibian-associated chytridiomycete fungi and chytridiomycosis are already widespread, though, and we therefore focus on discussing options for mitigating the threats once disease emergence has occurred in wild amphibian populations. All strategies have shortcomings that need to be overcome before implementation, including stronger efforts towards understanding and addressing ethical and legal considerations. Even if these issues can be dealt with, all currently available approaches, or those under discussion, are unlikely to yield the desired conservation outcome of disease mitigation. The decision process for establishing mitigation strategies requires integrated thinking that assesses disease mitigation options critically and embeds them within more comprehensive strategies for the conservation of amphibian populations, communities and ecosystems.This article is part of the themed issue 'Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trenton W J Garner
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, NW1 4RY London, UK .,Unit for Environmental Research and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Benedikt R Schmidt
- Karch, Passage Maximilien-de-Meuron 6, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.,Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Erin Muths
- U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science Fort Collins, 2150 Centre Avenue Building C, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - Andrew A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, NW1 4RY London, UK
| | - Che Weldon
- Unit for Environmental Research and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Matthew C Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Jaime Bosch
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Bacigalupe LD, Soto-Azat C, García-Vera C, Barría-Oyarzo I, Rezende EL. Effects of amphibian phylogeny, climate and human impact on the occurrence of the amphibian-killing chytrid fungus. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2017; 23:3543-3553. [PMID: 28055125 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Chytridiomycosis, due to the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has been associated with the alarming decline and extinction crisis of amphibians worldwide. Because conservation programs are implemented locally, it is essential to understand how the complex interactions among host species, climate and human activities contribute to Bd occurrence at regional scales. Using weighted phylogenetic regressions and model selection, we investigated geographic patterns of Bd occurrence along a latitudinal gradient of 1500 km within a biodiversity hot spot in Chile (1845 individuals sampled from 253 sites and representing 24 species), and its association with climatic, socio-demographic and economic variables. Analyses show that Bd prevalence decreases with latitude although it has increased by almost 10% between 2008 and 2013, possibly reflecting an ongoing spread of Bd following the introduction of Xenopus laevis. Occurrence of Bd was higher in regions with high gross domestic product (particularly near developed centers) and with a high variability in rainfall regimes, whereas models including other bioclimatic or geographic variables, including temperature, exhibited substantially lower fit and virtually no support based on Akaike weights. In addition, Bd prevalence exhibited a strong phylogenetic signal, with five species having high numbers of infected individuals and higher prevalence than the average of 13.3% across all species. Taken together, our results highlight that Bd in Chile might still be spreading south, facilitated by a subset of species that seem to play an important epidemiological role maintaining this pathogen in the communities, in combination with climatic and human factors affecting the availability and quality of amphibian breeding sites. This information may be employed to design conservation strategies and mitigate the impacts of Bd in the biodiversity hot spot of southern Chile, and similar studies may prove useful to disentangle the role of different factors contributing to the emergence and spread of this catastrophic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo D Bacigalupe
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Avda. Rector Eduardo Morales s/n, Edificio Pugín, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Claudio Soto-Azat
- Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad, Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andres Bello, República 440, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristobal García-Vera
- Dirección General de Aguas, Ministerio de Obras Públicas, Riquelme 465, Coyhaique, Chile
| | - Ismael Barría-Oyarzo
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Avda. Rector Eduardo Morales s/n, Edificio Pugín, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Enrico L Rezende
- Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andres Bello, República 440, Santiago, Chile
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22
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Blooi M, Laking AE, Martel A, Haesebrouck F, Jocque M, Brown T, Green S, Vences M, Bletz MC, Pasmans F. Host niche may determine disease-driven extinction risk. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181051. [PMID: 28704480 PMCID: PMC5509289 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) drives declines and extinctions in amphibian communities. However, not all regions and species are equally affected. Here, we show that association with amphibian aquatic habitat types (bromeliad phytotelmata versus stream) across Central America results in the odds of being threatened by Bd being five times higher in stream microhabitats. This differential threat of Bd was supported in our study by a significantly lower prevalence of Bd in bromeliad-associated amphibian species compared to riparian species in Honduran cloud forests. Evidence that the bromeliad environment is less favorable for Bd transmission is exemplified by significantly less suitable physicochemical conditions and higher abundance of Bd-ingesting micro-eukaryotes present in bromeliad water. These factors may inhibit aquatic Bd zoospore survival and the development of an environmental reservoir of the pathogen. Bromeliad phytotelmata thus may act as environmental refuges from Bd, which contribute to protecting associated amphibian communities against chytridiomycosis-driven amphibian declines that threaten the nearby riparian communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Blooi
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Alexandra E. Laking
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- Operation Wallacea, Hope House, Old Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Freddy Haesebrouck
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Merlijn Jocque
- Operation Wallacea, Hope House, Old Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California, United States of America
| | - Tom Brown
- Operation Wallacea, Hope House, Old Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Green
- Operation Wallacea, Hope House, Old Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
- Centre for Applied Zoology, Cornwall College Newquay, Cornwall, United Kingdom
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Molly C. Bletz
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is the predominant chytrid fungus in Vietnamese salamanders. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44443. [PMID: 28287614 PMCID: PMC5347381 DOI: 10.1038/srep44443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The amphibian chytrid fungi, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal), pose a major threat to amphibian biodiversity. Recent evidence suggests Southeast Asia as a potential cradle for both fungi, which likely resulted in widespread host-pathogen co-existence. We sampled 583 salamanders from 8 species across Vietnam in 55 locations for Bsal and Bd, determined scaled mass index as a proxy for fitness and collected environmental data. Bsal was found within 14 of the 55 habitats (2 of which it was detected in 2013), in 5 salamandrid species, with a prevalence of 2.92%. The globalized pandemic lineage of Bd was found within one pond on one species with a prevalence of 0.69%. Combined with a complete lack of correlation between infection and individual body condition and absence of indication of associated disease, this suggests low level pathogen endemism and Bsal and Bd co-existence with Vietnamese salamandrid populations. Bsal was more widespread than Bd, and occurs at temperatures higher than tolerated by the type strain, suggesting a wider thermal niche than currently known. Therefore, this study provides support for the hypothesis that these chytrid fungi may be endemic to Asia and that species within this region may act as a disease reservoir.
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Gabor C, Forsburg Z, Vörös J, Serrano-Laguna C, Bosch J. Differences in chytridiomycosis infection costs between two amphibian species from Central Europe. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) causes the disease chytridiomycosis associated with amphibian declines. Response and costs of infection varies greatly between species. Bd can induce a stress response in amphibians resulting in elevated corticosterone (CORT). We exposed Bombina variegata and Hyla arborea tadpoles to Bd+ or Bd- Salamandra salamandra larvae and measured CORT release rates, Bd infection loads, and survival through metamorphosis. Tadpoles of both species exposed to Bd+ larvae had elevated CORT release rates compared to tadpoles exposed to Bd- larvae. Bombina variegata appear less resistant to infection than H. arborea, showing higher Bd loads and more infected individuals. Within species, we did not find differences in cost of infection on survival, however more B. variegata tadpoles reached metamorphosis than H. arborea. The differences in resistance may be species specific, owing to higher immunity defenses with H. arborea having higher overall CORT release rates, and differences in antimicrobial peptides, or to differences in Bd strain or other unexplored mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Gabor
- Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, Texas, 78666, USA
| | - Zachery Forsburg
- Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, Texas, 78666, USA
| | - Judit Vörös
- Department of Zoology, Hungarian Natural History Museum, 1088 Budapest, Baross u. 13., Hungary
| | - Celia Serrano-Laguna
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, c/ José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jaime Bosch
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, c/ José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación, Seguimiento y Evaluación, Parque Nacional de la Sierra de Guadarrama, Cta. M-604, km 27.6, 28740 Rascafría, Spain
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25
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Stark T, Laurijssens C, Weterings M, Martel A, Köhler G, Pasmans F. Prevalence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in a Nicaraguan, micro-endemic Neotropical salamander, Bolitoglossa mombachoensis. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Amphibians are the most threatened terrestrial vertebrates on the planet and are iconic in the global biodiversity crisis. Their global decline caused by the fungal agentBatrachochytrium dendrobatidis(Bd) is well known. Declines of Mesoamerican salamanders of the family Plethodontidae, mainly affecting high elevation species, have equally been attributed toBd. Here we report the prevalence ofBdin a population of a high elevationBolitoglossaspecies in Nicaragua, since its description in 1999 until 2011 in the absence of any obvious population declines. Our findings show a low prevalence in an environmental context where pathogen driven declines would be expected to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tariq Stark
- Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, Agora 1, 8934 CJ Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - Carlijn Laurijssens
- Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, Agora 1, 8934 CJ Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn Weterings
- Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, Agora 1, 8934 CJ Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
- Wageningen University and Research Center, Resource Ecology Group, Droevendaalsesteeg 3a, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - An Martel
- Ghent University, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther Köhler
- Senckenberg, Forschungsinstitute und Naturmuseen, Senckenberganlag 25, Frankfurt a.M., Germany
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Ghent University, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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26
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Bell BD. A review of potential alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris) impacts on native frogs in New Zealand. J R Soc N Z 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/03036758.2016.1216455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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MONITORING RANAVIRUS-ASSOCIATED MORTALITY IN A DUTCH HEATHLAND IN THE AFTERMATH OF A RANAVIRUS DISEASE OUTBREAK. J Wildl Dis 2016; 52:817-827. [PMID: 27455198 DOI: 10.7589/2015-04-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The ranaviruses are an emerging group of viruses that infect amphibians, fish, and reptiles. Although ranaviruses have not been linked to extinctions, emergence in amphibian communities has resulted in population declines for some species. We present the results of ranavirus-associated mortality in a Dutch national park in the aftermath of an outbreak associated with a common midwife toad virus (CMTV)-like ranavirus. We monitored five bodies of water across Dwingelderveld National Park, the Netherlands, in 2011-13. Dead and live amphibians were counted weekly July-September and every 2 wk in June and October. Dead amphibians were collected and tested for ranavirus infection. In addition, we measured biologic, chemical, and physical site characteristics to test for a correlation with ranavirus-associated mortality. Ranavirus infection was widespread in our study area and we observed nearly continuous presence of dead, ranavirus-infected amphibians in the presence of asymptomatic, live amphibians throughout our study. Fatalities occurred in larval, subadult, and adult amphibians. Ranavirus infection prevalence (based on fatal cases) was significantly associated with increasing fractions of adults and subadults compared to juveniles and larvae in the population, but was unrelated to any other measured site characteristics. Our findings showed that a CMTV-like ranavirus can persist long term in an ecosystem, affecting a diversity of amphibian species and life stages for a prolonged period. This study illustrates the importance of monitoring the modes of spread for ranaviruses and their impact on amphibian populations.
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Invasive North American bullfrogs transmit lethal fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infections to native amphibian host species. Biol Invasions 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-016-1161-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Van Rooij P, Martel A, Haesebrouck F, Pasmans F. Amphibian chytridiomycosis: a review with focus on fungus-host interactions. Vet Res 2015; 46:137. [PMID: 26607488 PMCID: PMC4660679 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0266-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Amphibian declines and extinctions are emblematic for the current sixth mass extinction event. Infectious drivers of these declines include the recently emerged fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Chytridiomycota). The skin disease caused by these fungi is named chytridiomycosis and affects the vital function of amphibian skin. Not all amphibians respond equally to infection and host responses might range from resistant, over tolerant to susceptible. The clinical outcome of infection is highly dependent on the amphibian host, the fungal virulence and environmental determinants. B. dendrobatidis infects the skin of a large range of anurans, urodeles and caecilians, whereas to date the host range of B. salamandrivorans seems limited to urodeles. So far, the epidemic of B. dendrobatidis is mainly limited to Australian, neotropical, South European and West American amphibians, while for B. salamandrivorans it is limited to European salamanders. Other striking differences between both fungi include gross pathology and thermal preferences. With this review we aim to provide the reader with a state-of-the art of host-pathogen interactions for both fungi, in which new data pertaining to the interaction of B. dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans with the host’s skin are integrated. Furthermore, we pinpoint areas in which more detailed studies are necessary or which have not received the attention they merit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascale Van Rooij
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - An Martel
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Freddy Haesebrouck
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Laboratory of Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Refsnider JM, Poorten TJ, Langhammer PF, Burrowes PA, Rosenblum EB. Genomic Correlates of Virulence Attenuation in the Deadly Amphibian Chytrid Fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2015; 5:2291-8. [PMID: 26333840 PMCID: PMC4632049 DOI: 10.1534/g3.115.021808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseasespose a significant threat to global health, but predicting disease outcomes for particular species can be complicated when pathogen virulence varies across space, time, or hosts. The pathogenic chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused worldwide declines in frog populations. Not only do Bd isolates from wild populations vary in virulence, but virulence shifts can occur over short timescales when Bd is maintained in the laboratory. We leveraged changes in Bd virulence over multiple generations of passage to better understand mechanisms of pathogen virulence. We conducted whole-genome resequencing of two samples of the same Bd isolate, differing only in passage history, to identify genomic processes associated with virulence attenuation. The isolate with shorter passage history (and greater virulence) had greater chromosome copy numbers than the isolate maintained in culture for longer, suggesting that virulence attenuation may be associated with loss of chromosome copies. Our results suggest that genomic processes proposed as mechanisms for rapid evolution in Bd are correlated with virulence attenuation in laboratory culture within a single lineage of Bd. Moreover, these genomic processes can occur over extremely short timescales. On a practical level, our results underscore the importance of immediately cryo-archiving new Bd isolates and using fresh isolates, rather than samples cultured in the laboratory for long periods, for laboratory infection experiments. Finally, when attempting to predict disease outcomes for this ecologically important pathogen, it is critical to consider existing variation in virulence among isolates and the potential for shifts in virulence over short timescales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanine M Refsnider
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3114
| | - Thomas J Poorten
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3114
| | | | - Patricia A Burrowes
- Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931-3360
| | - Erica Bree Rosenblum
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3114
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Beyer SE, Phillips CA, Schooley RL. Canopy cover and drought influence the landscape epidemiology of an amphibian chytrid fungus. Ecosphere 2015. [DOI: 10.1890/es14-00263.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Scheele BC, Driscoll DA, Fischer J, Fletcher AW, Hanspach J, Vörös J, Hartel T. Landscape context influences chytrid fungus distribution in an endangered European amphibian. Anim Conserv 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B. C. Scheele
- Fenner School of Environment and Society; Australian National University; Canberra Australia
| | - D. A. Driscoll
- Fenner School of Environment and Society; Australian National University; Canberra Australia
| | - J. Fischer
- Faculty of Sustainability; Leuphana University Lueneburg; Lueneburg Germany
| | - A. W. Fletcher
- Faculty of Sustainability; Leuphana University Lueneburg; Lueneburg Germany
| | - J. Hanspach
- Faculty of Sustainability; Leuphana University Lueneburg; Lueneburg Germany
| | - J. Vörös
- Department of Zoology; Hungarian Natural History Museum; Budapest Hungary
| | - T. Hartel
- Faculty of Sustainability; Leuphana University Lueneburg; Lueneburg Germany
- Environmental Science Department; Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania; Cluj-Napoca Romania
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Blooi M, Martel A, Haesebrouck F, Vercammen F, Bonte D, Pasmans F. Treatment of urodelans based on temperature dependent infection dynamics of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. Sci Rep 2015; 5:8037. [PMID: 25623498 PMCID: PMC5389025 DOI: 10.1038/srep08037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The recently emerged chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans currently causes amphibian population declines. We hypothesized that temperature dictates infection dynamics of B. salamandrivorans, and that therefore heat treatment may be applied to clear animals from infection. We examined the impact of environmental temperature on B. salamandrivorans infection and disease dynamics in fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). Colonization of salamanders by B. salamandrivorans occurred at 15°C and 20°C but not at 25°C, with a significantly faster buildup of infection load and associated earlier mortality at 15°C. Exposing B. salamandrivorans infected salamanders to 25°C for 10 days resulted in complete clearance of infection and clinically cured all experimentally infected animals. This treatment protocol was validated in naturally infected wild fire salamanders. In conclusion, we show that B. salamandrivorans infection and disease dynamics are significantly dictated by environmental temperature, and that heat treatment is a viable option for clearing B. salamandrivorans infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Blooi
- 1] Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium [2] Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - A Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Haesebrouck
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Vercammen
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - D Bonte
- Department of Biology, Terrestrial Ecology Unit, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - F Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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Sabino-Pinto J, Bletz M, Hendrix R, Perl RB, Martel A, Pasmans F, Lötters S, Mutschmann F, Schmeller DS, Schmidt BR, Veith M, Wagner N, Vences M, Steinfartz S. First detection of the emerging fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in Germany. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2015. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis is one of the major factors triggering global amphibian declines. A recently discovered species of chytrid fungus,Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans(Bsal), likely originated in East Asia, has led to massive declines in populations of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) after its apparent introduction to the Netherlands and Belgium. Here, we report the first detection of this pathogen in Germany where it caused mass mortality of fire salamanders in a captive collection. Salamanders from this collection showed an almost 100% prevalence of infection withBsal. SupposedBsal-induced mortality occurred in multipleSalamandraspecies (S. salamandra,S. algira,S. corsica, andS. infraimmaculata), whileBsalinfection was confirmed in nine subspecies ofS. salamandraand inS. algira. Our study indicates that this pathogen can potentially infect all fire salamander species and subspecies. IfBsalspreads from captive collections to wild populations, then a similar devastating effect associated with high mortality should be expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Sabino-Pinto
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Molly Bletz
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ralf Hendrix
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - R.G. Bina Perl
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Frank Mutschmann
- Exomed – Institut für veterinärmedizinische Betreuung niederer Wirbeltiere und Exoten, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dirk S. Schmeller
- UFZ – Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Conservation Biology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Benedikt R. Schmidt
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- KARCH, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Veith
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Norman Wagner
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sebastian Steinfartz
- Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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Martel A, Blooi M, Adriaensen C, Van Rooij P, Beukema W, Fisher MC, Farrer RA, Schmidt BR, Tobler U, Goka K, Lips KR, Muletz C, Zamudio KR, Bosch J, Lötters S, Wombwell E, Garner TWJ, Cunningham AA, Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Salvidio S, Ducatelle R, Nishikawa K, Nguyen TT, Kolby JE, Van Bocxlaer I, Bossuyt F, Pasmans F. Wildlife disease. Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers Western Palearctic salamanders. Science 2014; 346:630-1. [PMID: 25359973 DOI: 10.1126/science.1258268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases are reducing biodiversity on a global scale. Recently, the emergence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans resulted in rapid declines in populations of European fire salamanders. Here, we screened more than 5000 amphibians from across four continents and combined experimental assessment of pathogenicity with phylogenetic methods to estimate the threat that this infection poses to amphibian diversity. Results show that B. salamandrivorans is restricted to, but highly pathogenic for, salamanders and newts (Urodela). The pathogen likely originated and remained in coexistence with a clade of salamander hosts for millions of years in Asia. As a result of globalization and lack of biosecurity, it has recently been introduced into naïve European amphibian populations, where it is currently causing biodiversity loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - M Blooi
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium. Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 26, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - C Adriaensen
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - P Van Rooij
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - W Beukema
- CIBIO/InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos da Universidade do Porto, Instituto de Ciências Agrárias de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, Vairão, Portugal
| | - M C Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - R A Farrer
- Genome Sequencing and Analysis Program, The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - B R Schmidt
- Koordinationsstelle für amphibien- und reptilienschutz in der Schweiz (KARCH), Passage Maximilien-de-Meuron 6, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Institut für Evolutionsbiologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Zürich. Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - U Tobler
- Koordinationsstelle für amphibien- und reptilienschutz in der Schweiz (KARCH), Passage Maximilien-de-Meuron 6, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Institut für Evolutionsbiologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Zürich. Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - K Goka
- Invasive Alien Species Research Team, National Institute for Environment Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - K R Lips
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - C Muletz
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - K R Zamudio
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - J Bosch
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones cientificas (CSIC), José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - S Lötters
- Biogeography Department, Trier University, 54286 Trier, Germany
| | - E Wombwell
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, Kent CT2 7NR, UK. Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - T W J Garner
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - A A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - A Spitzen-van der Sluijs
- Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation the Netherlands (RAVON), Post Office Box 1413, 6501 BK Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - S Salvidio
- Department of Earth Science, Environmental and Life (Di.S.T.A.V.), University of Genova, Corso Europa 26, I-16132 Genova, Italy
| | - R Ducatelle
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K Nishikawa
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Nihonmatsu-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - T T Nguyen
- Vietnam National Museum of Nature, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - J E Kolby
- James Cook University, One Health Research Group, School of Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitation Sciences, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - I Van Bocxlaer
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - F Bossuyt
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - F Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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